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Amorphophallus konjac K. Koch © Curtis's Botanical Magazine 1875

Botanical classification

Amorphophallus konjac K. Koch

Order:

Alismatales

Family:

Araceae

Synonyms:

Amorphophallus mairei H. Lév.

Amorphophallus nanus H. Li & C. L. Long

Amorphophallus rivieri Durieu ex Riv.

Brachyspatha konjac (K. Koch) K. Koch

Hydrosme rivieri (Durieu ex Riv.) Engl.

Proteinophallus rivieri (Durieu ex Riv.) J. D. Hook. f.

Plant growing area

China (Yunnan where the species occurs wild), Indonesia, Japan, Korea (Cultivated).

Found in open situations, forest margins and thickets between 200 and 3000 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

The plant has a rhizome which can weigh up to 4 kg.

It is grown in Indonesia, Korea and Japan mainly as a vegetable (as cakes and noodles), but also for its medicinal properties in treatment of cancer or diabete.

In Japan, konnyaku (made by mixing Konjac flour with water lime) is used to strengthen the paper used as Kamiko (cf. papers).

China:

Used as dyeing aid.

Japan:

A viscous liquid obtained from the Konnyaku flour is brushed on the surface of paper to make it more resistant to water before dyeing in particular with indigo. The concentration is 0.5% weight / liquid.

Preparation process for making paper

Japan:

Konnyaku flour is mixed with water and then heated to form a viscous liquid.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Use for paper making:

Dyeing aid

Language:

French

Botanical classification

Hibiscus syriacus L.

Order:

Malvales

Family:

Malvaceae

Synonyms:

Hibiscus acerifolius Salisb.

Hibiscus floridus Salisb.

Hibiscus rhombifolius Cav.

Ketmia arborea Moench

Ketmia syriaca (L.) Scop.

Ketmia syrorum Medik.

Plant growing area

Cultivated in most tropical and temperate regions of Asia.

Native to China (Anhui, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Sichuan,Yunnan, and Zhejiang; cultivated in Fujian, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Xizang), Taiwan.

Sea cliffs, hillsides, along streams, roadsides, also extensively cultivated; below 1200 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Hibiscus syriacus is a bushy plant measuring 1.50m to 4m high. The flowers, hermaphrodite, are purple, pink or white; they can be isolated or grouped in inflorescences. Flowering occurs from July to October. The plant adapts to various soil types if they are well drained. It likes full sun.

Its was taken in cultivation very early along trade routes to the Middle East and to Europe. Hibiscus syriacus is grown as an ornamental plant in gardens.

The flowers are edible. The plant was used in traditional medicine, the flowers for their emollient properties, leaves for their diuretic properties and root for their antipyretic and anthelmintic properties.

The fibers of the stem are used in the manufacture of ropes.

A mucilage is extracted from the roots which is used as formation aid in paper making. This viscous material is added to the pulp to increase its viscosity and thus delay the settling of fibers in the tank. In addition, the mucilage allows a better dispersion of the long fibers.

China:

The use of hibiscus syriacus is quoted in the stories of "Guixinzashi" or "Miscellaneous news from Guixin street" by Zhou Mi (mid 13th century).

Korea:

Hibiscus syriacus is the national emblem of South Korea. Mugung means eternity.

Silla kingdom (57av JC -. 935) called itself the land of hibiscus. A Chinese document from the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) mentions that Korea is the land of hibiscus. It is the poet Lee Gyu-bo (1168-1241) during the Goryeo dynasty who first used the name "mugungwha."

The plant adorns the gardens in Korea from immemorial time ; its leaves were brewed into an herbal tea and flowers were eaten.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Fang Yishi (1611-1671) in « Wuli xiaoshi » or « Some Knowledge of Physics » , published in 1643, describes how the rose of Sharon roots are reduced to a slurry which was poured into the tank with the mulberry fibers before making paper sheets.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Formation aid

Polygonum tinctorium Aiton © Plantillustrations

Botanical classification

Polygonum tinctorium Aiton

Order:

Caryophyllales

Family:

Polygonaceae

Synonyms:

Ampelygonum tinctorium (Aiton)Steud.

Persicaria tinctoria (Aiton) H. Gross

Persicaria tinctoria (Aiton) Spach

Pogalis tinctoria (Aiton) Raf.

Plant growing area

Native to Vietnam and South of China, cultivated elsewhere.

China (Widespread), Japan, Vietnam.

Grows in moist valleys, stream banks at altitude 200-1000 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Polygonum tinctorium is an annual or biennial herb from 30 to 50cm high. The pale pink flowers are small and blooming occurs from June to October. The fruits are small, black and hard. The plant prefers fertile soils and sun exposure. Hot and humid climates suit it the best. Harvesting can take place twice a year before flowering.

The plant is cultivated for its medicinal properties (anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties) and as source of dye.

Indigo plants represent about a thousand species in the world. The indigo produced by Polygonum tinctorium is one of the oldest blue dyes. The species mainly exploited for its indigo in Asia currently, is the true indigo or Indigofera tinctoria.

The leaves contain a colorless glycoside of indoxyline, indican. This one by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis releases indoxyl and sugars. Indoxyl in contact with oxygen from the air, is oxidized into dihydro-indigo (greenish) and then into indigotine (blue).

Indican is found only in the leaves. The leaves of Polygonum tinctorium can provide about 5% of indigo.

The fresh leaves can be used directly for dyeing fabrics by crushing them in water and putting the fabric to dye to their direct contact. This method is used in the areas of plant cultivation. The other method is to produce an intermediate substance to be used after fermentation.

Blues are used as basis for greens and purples.

China:

The use of Polygonum tinctorium is very old in southern China and Vietnam. Its use as dye or for medicinal purpose is attested in the Western Zhou (1050-771 BC.). The technique is perfectly mastered under the Han (206 BC-220 AD) as it is evidenced by the discovery of archaeological textiles, especially silk clothing from this period.

Miao in southern Sichuan, northern Yunnan and Guizhou used it in paste form. It was the most important source of indigo throughout the Far East until the arrival of Indigofera tinctoria.

The cultivation of the plant, the indigo starch extracting and tank dyeing are described in “Qimin Yaoshu” or “Main techniques for the welfare of the people” by Jia Sixie (text on agriculture in 10 volumes dating from 6th century) as well as in the “Tiangong kaiwu” or “Creations of nature and work of man” by Song Yingxing (encyclopedia dating from 1634 or 1637).

Li Shizen in « Bencao gangmu » or « Materia Medica Compendium », published in 1590, presents various kinds of indigo plants : Sunglan (Isatsis tinctoria), Liaolan (Polygonum tinctorium), Mulan (Indigofera tinctoria).

Japan:

Indigo plants used in Japan are Indigofera tinctoria, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium, the latter being the most frequently used in Japan.

Indigo Polygonum tinctorium is used in dyeing fabrics, papers and also in prints. It is often used to make green, mixed with Miscanthus tinctorius.

The plant has been cultivated throughout Japan but especially in Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture) where yield was very good thanks to the particularly favorable soil and climate conditions. Awa region was a major center for the indigo production that has enriched the region for a long time. Ai cultivation currently remains.

Imported from China probably in the 4th century, Polygonum tinctorium becomes the main source of indigo. From the 8th century its use by dyers is mentioned in the administration code (Shokuin-rei).

In the 18th century it is still the main source of dye stuffs. During the Edo period (1603-1868) Japan starts to import cotton and then its cultivation, to meet the restrictions on the use of silk. Indigo was the most suitable for dyeing cotton. All social classes used to wear blue clothes. Its use in printing prints begins at the same time probably.

Both methods of fermentation and direct dye are used. The first one started during the Nara period (710-794). Later during the Muromachi period (1333-1573) a complicated double fermentation method will be developed.

To obtain a light blue paper, it is possible to dye the pulp in the tank. To obtain an intense blue, the paper is colored by soaking in a dye bath.

Blue papers are used to cover books. They are also used for Buddhist sutras copies with gold ink.

Korea:

Two encyclopedias from the 18th century report the extraction process of indigo.

This is a dye that has always been very popular in Korea; the blue is called "jjok bit" or "Korean blue". The methods traditionally used are those by fermentation.

Preparation process for making paper

The preparation of the dye from indigo plants involves three main techniques: the direct method of dyeing, the manufacture of shells and of starch indigo. However, there are many geographic variations related mainly to locally available ingredients.

China:

Indigo starch method: Harvesting takes place during summer. Stems and leaves are placed in a pit or a tank according to the amount to be treated, coated with water and pressed by a board or a stone. Fermentation starts rapidly and causes the increase of temperature. It can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature. The green-yellow liquid that forms is filtered, then, it is violently stirred for several hours to aerate and oxidize it. The precipitation of the color is caused by the addition of lime or caustic ash. The deposit or indigo starch is collected, washed, filtered. It can be pressed into cakes or kept in wet paste.

It is in this shape that it is delivered to dyers. It is necessary to perform dyeing, to mix it with rice straw ashes and water and shake again.

Direct method: The leaves are crushed and left to ferment in a warm water tank allowing bacterial activity. Lime or ashes are added to maintain a fixed alkali rate. The fabric is placed directly in the bath. Oxidation occurs when the cloth is removed and exposed to air. This method gives pale blues. It is necessary to repeat soaking and exposure to air and provide fresh leaves for a more intense color.

Japan:

The seeds are sown at the time of the spring equinox (mid March). They are transplanted in May and the first harvest takes place in summer. Plants are sorted, left to dry for two days and the leaves are separated from the stem by threshing

Shell method: The leaves are piled in one meter high layer in a warehouse where they are moistened and brewed regularly every three days. New leaves are added and sprayed with water during the entire operation. The temperature rises progressively according to the fermentation and can reach 70 ° C. The pile is then covered with a straw mat to retain heat and fermentation continues for one hundred days. The leaves are then crushed, drained and formed into shells or aidama which are dried.

So that they can be used for dyeing, these balls are crushed and the fermentation is reactivated by addition of warm water. The dye is directly extracted from the leave ball (which requires filtering).

Indigo starch method: After harvesting, the leaves are left to dry for two days. Then, they are put to ferment in a tank covered with a small layer of water. The fermentation can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature.

The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen and oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye).

The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste, called indigo starch, is then formed into cakes.

Double fermentation method: The leaves are prepared according to the conventional fermentation method. Then the dye is kept in jars for several months without stirring to prevent rapid oxidation. When oxidation starts, it forms purple bubbles on the surface called "indigo flowers. This foam is removed, dried and crushed to reduce it in pigment powder. These pigments are used to form sticks by mixing them with animal glue.

Dyeing of paper is made in two ways: paper pulp dyeing (sukizome) or paper sheet dyeing by dipping (hitachizome). To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Usually three jars of dye are prepared with decreasing concentrations. The paper is dipped in the less concentrated dye jar and oxidation occurs in the air; the paper is then soaked in the little beat more concentrated dye. After oxidation, the sheet is dipped into the third jar with the strongest concentration. The process can be repeated several times to obtain a color more or less intense. The sheet is dried by exposing the surface to air; the color changes by oxidation.

Korea:

Shell method: The leaves are piled in a tank or a pit and moistened and brewed regularly. The temperature rises progressively according to fermentation. They are then crushed, drained and formed into shells which are left to dry. They are delivered to dyers in this shape.

So that they can be used for dyeing, these balls are crushed and the fermentation is reactivated by addition of warm water. The dye is directly extracted from the leave balls.

Indigo starch method: After harvesting the leaves are left to dry for two days. They are left to ferment in a tank covered with a small layer of water. The fermentation can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature. The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen to oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye). The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste is then formed into cakes or kept into mud called Niram.

The papers are dyed in three ways: dyeing of the pulp (Seonyeombeop), dyeing of the sheet by dipping, (Huyeombeop ). Then the paper can be hammered.

Paper names

In Asia and particularly in China, Korea and Japan, the papers are intended for a wide range of use: Papers for calligraphy and art, Papers for ceremonies, Paper as a medium of exchange, money paper, Papers for making clothes, wall hangings and bedding, Papers for architecture, interior design, Papers for crafts of various kinds, for domestic purposes and leisure. The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Dye

Mercurialis leiocarpa Siebold & Zucc.© Flora of China

Mercurialis leiocarpa Siebold & Zucc.© CFH Nature Museum

Botanical classification

Mercurialis leiocarpa Siebold & Zucc.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Euphorbiaceae

Synonyms:

Mercurialis leiocarpa var. transmorrisonensis (Hayata) H. Keng

Mercurialis leiocarpa var. trichocarpa W. T. Wang

Mercurialis transmorrisonensis Hayata

Plant growing area

Bhutan, China (Anhui, North Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), North East India, Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Ryukyu), Korea, Nepal, North Thailand.

Grows on mountain slopes or in valleys or forests at 300-2800 m altitude.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Perennial rhizomatous herb; 30cm to 1m tall. Grows in clumps. It is dioecious and the small flowers bloom from March to April. It adapts to various exposures from sun to partial shade and to a variety of soils, acidic or calcareous.

A drying oil is obtained from the seed.

The chemical structure of the blue dyestuff is unknown. The proportion of colorant in the plant is low and contains impurities. The color fades easily.

Japan:

The dye was used primarily during the Nara period (710-794). Its use continued until the Edo period (1603-1868). It was famous for dyeing kimonos.

The dye was applied directly to the fabric leaving a blue-green color called suri-ai which means " rubbed blue."

Preparation process for making paper

Japan:

Leaves were harvested in summer and early autumn. After being left to macerate, they were rubbed directly onto the fabric which became blue.

Crushed roots and leaves could also be used to extract a liquid dye.

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The papers are dyed in three ways: dyeing of the pulp (Seonyeombeop), dyeing of the sheet by dipping, brushing and spraying (Huyeombeop ), combination of the both methods (Honyeombeop). Then the paper can be hammered.

Paper names

The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Dye

Botanical classification

Quercus acutissima Carruth.

Order:

Fagales

Family:

Fagaceae

Synonyms:

Quercus acutissima var. depressinucata H. W. Jen & R. Q. Gao

Quercus acutissima var. macrocarpa X.W. Li & Y.Q. Zhu

Quercus acutissima var. septentrionalis Liou

Quercus lunglingensis Hu

Plant growing area

Originally native to eastern Asia, in China, Korea and Japan.

Bhutan, Cambodia, China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, South East Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang), North East India, Japan (south Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu), Korea, Burma, Nepal, North Thailand, Vietnam.

Grows in deciduous forests, below 100-2200 m altitude.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Quercus acutissima is a deciduous tree, reaching 25-30 m in height. Flowering occurs in April-May. Flowers, catkins shaped give a fruit, acorn shaped with a big cup.

The wood has the same characteristics as other oaks but tends to crack. It is used as an ornamental in parks, for making tools, for charcoal. It is mainly used for its tannins contained in the bark.

For dyeing, acorn cupules are used. The colors are brown.
Dyeing ingredients are tannins which are found in the bark, the acorn cupules and the galls. These tannins are a mixture of polyphenols: hydrolysable tannins (ellagitannins), condensed tannins (procyanidins), hybrid tannins (gallo-tannins and ellagiflavano-tanins).

China:

Quercus acutissima is mentioned for the preparation of brown dyes in two books of the late 16th century, "Zunsheng bajian" or "Eight orders to follow the meaning of life" by Gao Lian and « Kuaixue tang manlu » or “Cloudy Notes from joyful snow Palace " by Feng Mengzhen.

Japan:

It is a tree used since ancient times in Japan for the production of charcoal, because it has a quite rapid growing.

Always gray was one of the most popular colors in Japan. During the Edo period (1603-1868) the acorn is widely used for dyeing fabrics in gray and black, especially for the costumes of Noh Theater. In the Engishiki (Compendium of laws dated 927 by Fujiwara no Tadahira) there is a mention of a color called Tsurubami (that is to say the acorn color).

Other oak species are also used in Japan for their acorns: Kashiwa (Quercus dentata Thunb.) Konara (Quercus serrata Murray) Shirakashi (Quercu myrsinaefolia Bl).

Preparation process for making paper

China:

The dye is a decoction of oak acorns. The cupules are boiled and then the extract is filtered before to be used. It can be used in combination with other dyes to change the color. Gao Lian in "Zunsheng bajian" or "Eight orders to follow the meaning of life" (1591) proposes to prepare three dyeing baths: phellodendron, oak acorns and safflower in which the paper sheet is dipped successively starting with the phellodendron bath then oak acorn bath and finishing with the safflower bath. Between each bath sheet is dried.

Japan:

Harvesting takes place when acorns are ripe in late summer. After picking, the acorn cupules are dried. Then they will be grinded into powder and boiled. The decoction is filtered before being used. The paper sheets are soaked into the dye bath and allowed to dry. The color obtained is a brown tone ranging from beige to brown depending on the number of passes through the bath. It is possible to use various mordants to obtain other colors. Without mordant the color obtain is beige to brown; if the mordant is an ash lye or copper acetate, color is yellow-brow; if mordant is an iron salt, the color varies from gray to black.Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing.

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Usually three jars of dye are prepared with decreasing concentrations. The paper is dipped in the less concentrated dye jar and oxidation occurs in the air; the paper is then soaked in the little bit more concentrated dye. After oxidation, the sheet is dipped into the third jar with the strongest concentration. The process can be repeated several times to obtain a color more or less intense. The sheet is dried by exposing the surface to air; the color changes by oxidation.

Korea:

Paper names

The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Fruit

Use for paper making:

Dye

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber.
Average fibre lenght	5mm
Average fibre width	21μm
Fibre ends	Very variable, tapering rounded.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Faint crossmarkings.
Associated cells	Often present. Pitted vessel elements and parenchyma cells. Presence of cratered vessels larger than those of flax, but similar to hemp.
Special features	Short fibers. Irregularly shaped fiber ends and walls lumen. Looks like woodpulp (vessels) and straw pulp. Transverse shape: square or rectangular.
Herzberg staining	Blue.
Graff 'C' staining	Fiber in yellow with blue or green lumen.

Botanical classification

Hibiscus cannabinus L.

Order:

Malvales

Family:

Malvaceae

Synonyms:

Abelmoschus verrucosus (Guill. & Perr.) Walp.

Furcaria cavanillesii Kostel.

Hibiscus unidens Lindl.

Hibiscus verrucosus Guill. & Perr.

Ketmia glandulosa Moench

Plant growing area

Native to Africa and India.

Cultivated in China (Guangdong, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Yunnan, Zhejiang), India, East-Asia, East Africa.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, India, Japan, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Hibiscus cannabinus is an annual herb which can reach more than 3 m high. The flowers are pale yellow or red with crimson centres. Blooming occurs from summer to autumn. Its growth is rapid; the plant can reach over four feet in four months.

Kenaf was grown in Egypt a millennium BC for making ropes and cloth (bags, sails).

The plant is grown all over Asia, mainly as fiber crop and for its oil which is used industrially. The fibers are used in the manufacture of coarse fabrics such as carpets.

Kenaf is used in India for the manufacture of cigarette paper. The rapid growth of the plant encourages papermakers to use it instead of wood in the production of paper pulp. Thus, the bast fibers or the whole stem itself are used.

Japan:

Kenaf is a modern paper fiber in Japan.

Preparation process for making paper

The harvest takes place in November-December when the stem has lost its leaves.

Paper names

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc. © Flora of China

Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc. © CFH Nature Museum

Botanical classification

Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc.

Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Boraginaceae

Synonyms:

Lithospermum officinale L. var. erythrorhizon (Siebold & Zucc.) Maxim.

Plant growing area

China (South East Gansu, North Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan), Japan, Korea, Eastern Russia.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Rhizomatous perennial bushy herb, that can reach 60cm to 1m of height. The plant grows in sun or semi-shade, in uncultivated meadows, sparse forests, hill slopes.. It prefers moist soils.

Flowering occurs from June to September. The flowers are white and grouped in small bouquets.The seeds are bright and hard as stone, hence the name of the plant.

The main dye, shikonin, is a naphthoquinones. It is found in the bark of the roots.

The plant is used in ancient Egypt and Greco-Roman world as a dye and as a cosmetic. Its use continues until the 19th century when it disappeared with the advent of aniline dyes.

Dried root of Listhospermum erythrorhizon are used in Chinese medicine for its antiviral and biological properties and in the preparation of creams for skin care.

China:

This is one of the oldest dyeing plant of China. Its use is mentioned in the "Qimin Yaoshu" or " “Important skills of the Common People” by Jia Sixie,agriculture treatise in ten volumes dating from the 6th century.

Japan:

It is used for dyeing fabrics and papers and also in printing prints.

The plant has become very rare. It is grown in Iwate and Kyoto areas.

The plant has been cultivated since the Nara period (710-794) for its dyeing and also medicinal properties. The use of the dye during this period is reserved to members of the royal family and court officials. These restrictions persist during the Heian period (794-1185), with a sumptuary law that restricts its use for dyeing clothes of the Empress and her attendants.

It is so famous in the 19th century in the West that it is called Tokyo violet.

Korea:

Its use seems very old in Korea, probably from the Goguryeo period (37 BC - 668 AD). This is a particularly popular dye by the nobility during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910).

It is used for dyeing fabrics and papers.

Preparation process for making paper

The roots are harvested in spring and in the autumn. They are dried for later use.

As shikonin is slightly soluble in water, the roots must be crushed and it is necessary to make several infusions. Extraction can be done also in vinegar.

Japan:

The dye requires a laborious process of repeatedly kneading the roots in warm water to release the dye color. The roots are crushed put in hot water and mixed with rice vinegar. Temperature should not exceed 60° C.

The color varies according to the mordant used from deep purple (ash lye) to purple grey (alum).

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing). To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

In the present case, the pulp is generally dyed in the tank before making the sheet. The pulp which is ready for use is squeezed to remove water and then is placed in the dye bath and brewed. Then it is removed from the bath, rinsed and squeezed before being placed in the mordant bath, rinsed before being placed in the dye bath again. These successive baths allow for a deeper color.

Korea:

Root cut into small pieces is heated in hot water several times. To release the dye color the roots require a laborious process of repeatedly kneading them in warm water. The color will vary depending on the mordant used.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Use for paper making:

Dye

Botanical classification

Isatis tinctoria L.

Order:

Brassicales

Family:

Brassicaceae

Synonyms:

Isatis indigotica Fortune

Isatis oblongata DC. var. yezoensis (Ohwi) Y. L. Chang

Isatis tinctoria var. indigotica (Fortune) T. Y. Cheo & K. C. Kuan

Isatis tinctoria var. yezoensis (Ohwi) Ohwi

Isatis yezoensis Ohwi

Plant growing area

Isatis tinctoria originated perhaps from India. The species is spontaneous in North Africa, Europe (mostly in Mediterranean area) and Western Asia until Xinjiang (China).

China (Fujian, Gansu, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang), Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan.

It grows in fields, on roadsides at an altitude of 600-2800 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

The genus Isatis includes 107 species in Europe and the Mediterranean area, 72 species in Asia.

Isatis tinctoria is a biennial herbaceous plant, 1m to 1.50m tall, with branched stem. It grows better in rich or calcareous soils and sunny lands.

The flowers are small, yellow and grow in clusters. Flowering occurs from May to June. The black fruits are oval.

The plant allows several harvests per year if the soil and sun exposure are good.

Its use as a dye plant is very old and widespread in the world. There are traces of its use since prehistoric times in Europe; its cultivation probably dates back to very ancient times. Egypt was a very ancient center of pastel dyeing.

Indigo plants represent about one thousand species in the world. Isatis tinctoria is the indigo plant which was the most widely used.

The roots and leaves are also used for medicinal purposes for their healing properties. The seed oil is used in the industry. The plant was also used as forage or pasture. In the Middle East, mixed with henna, it is used to dye hair.

The leaves contain a colorless glycoside of indoxyline, isatan B. By acid or enzymatic hydrolysis (fermentation) this one releases indoxyl which oxidizes by contact with oxygen from the air into dihydro-indigo (greenish) and then into indigotine (blue).

The leaf also contains but in much smaller amount, an other glycoside capable of providing indoxyl, indican.
Blues are used as basis for greens and violets dyeing (purple imitation).

China:

It is a cultivated species, very popular throughout China in traditional medicine. The roots are dried and ground into granules that will be consumed as teas.

The plant is used as dye stuffs in particular for cotton fabrics and especially for dyeing silk.

Li Shizen in « Bencao gangmu » or « Materia Medica Compendium », published in 1590, presents various kinds of indigo plants Sunglan (Isatsis tinctoria), Liaolan (Polygonum tinctorium), Mulan (Indigofera tinctoria).

The dye is used as basis for greens in combinaison with Sophora japonica or for blacks in combinaison with walnut (Juglans mandshurica Maxim., Juglans Regia L.).

Japan:

Indigo plants used in Japan are Indigofera tinctoria, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium. The latter is the most frequently used in Japan.

The use by Ainu of Isatis tinctoria is very old, prior to the use of Knotweed (Polygonum tinctorium).

To obtain a light blue paper, it is possible to dye the pulp in the tank. To obtain an intense blue, the paper is colored by soaking in a dye bath.

Blue papers are used to cover books.

Korea:

It is a cultivated species. The dye is used as basis for greens.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Sowing takes place in March or in October. Harvesting can be done several times in the year from June. The leaf is ripe when it begins to wilt, turn to yellow or purple.

Indigo starch method: After harvesting the leaves are left to dry and then left to ferment in a tank or a pit covered with a small layer of water. Bacterial fermentation in the tank is maintained at the fixed rate thanks to the addition of lime shell. It can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature.

The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen and oxidize.

Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye). The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste, called indigo starch, is kept in mud. It is sold in this shape.

Japan:

The seeds are sown autumn. Harvesting starts when leaves are ripe in June. It is renewed every twenty days.

Shell method: The leaves are stored in a warehouse where they are moistened and brewed regularly during one hundred days. The temperature rises progressively according to the fermentation. The leaves are then crushed, drained and formed into shells or aidama which are dried.

The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen and oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye).

The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste, called indigo starch, is then formed into cakes.

Dyeing of paper is made in two ways: paper pulp dyeing (sukizome) or paper sheet dyeing by dipping (hitashizome). To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Dye

Morus australis Poir. © CFH Nature Museum

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	2,2 mm
Average fibre width	30 µm
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent fiber wall.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining

Botanical classification

Morus australis Poir.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus acidosa Griff.

Morus alba L. var. indica Bureau

Morus alba var. nigriformis Bureau

Morus alba var. stylosa Bureau

Morus australis var. hastifolia (F. T. Wang & T. Tang ex Z.Y. Cao) Z.Y. Cao

Morus australis var. incisa C. Y. Wu

Morus australis var. inusitata (H. Lév.) C.Y. Wu

Morus australis var. linearipartita Z.Y. Cao

Morus australis var. oblongifolia Z.Y. Cao

Morus bombycis Koidz.

Morus bombycis var. angustifolia Koidz.

Morus bombycis var. bifida Koidz.

Morus bombycis var. longistyla Koidz.

Morus bombycis var. tiliifolia Koidz.

Morus cavaleriei H. Lév.

Morus formosensis Hotta

Morus hastifolia F. T. Wang & T. Tang ex Z.Y. Cao

Morus inusitata H. Lév.

Morus longistylus Diels

Morus nigriformis (Bureau) Koidz.

Morus stylosa Ser. var. ovalifolia Ser.

Plant growing area

Grows in temperate and warm areas, in tropical areas.

Bhutan, Burma, China (Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, South East Xizang/Tibet, Yunnan, Zhejiang), India (Sikkim), Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Okinawa), Korea, Nepal, Taiwan.

Grows in limestone areas, forest margins, on mountain slopes, at an altitude from 500 to 2000 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Morus australis is a deciduous tree growing 10-15m. It is in flower from March to May. It prefers a warm well-drained loamy soil in a sunny position but can accommodate to various kinds of soils and grow in semi-shade.

The fruit, the bark, the leaf and the root have medicinal properties. The fruits are edible.

The fruits contain anthocyanins which are pigments. The colours vary from orange, red, purple, black, and blue. They are water-soluble and easily extractable.

Root contains also yellow dyes used for dyeing paper.The bark is used for making paper.

China:

The fibers are supposed to be used in papermaking.

Korea:

In Korea the bark is used to get fiber for papermaking; the roots are used for dye or medicine.

Paper names

The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Root

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Dye

Ulmus Cavaleriei H.Lév. © Flora of China

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	1.66-9.94mm
Average fibre width	8.3-25.4µm
Fibre ends	variable, often pointed.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Nodes and dislocations.
Associated cells
Special features	Looks like kozo but thinner and shorter fiber with transparent membrane, thick wall and a lumen.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining	Pink to purple.

Botanical classification

Ulmus cavaleriei H. Lev.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Ulmaceae

Synonyms:

Pteroceltis tatarinowii Maxim.

Plant growing area

China (Anhui, Fujian, South Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning (Dalian), South East Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Zhejiang), Mongolia.

Grows in mountainous regions on limestone, river banks at an altitude 100-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China.

China:

Anhui, Sichuan, Zhejiang.

Plant cultivation and use

Ulmus cavaleriei better known as Pteroceltis tatarinowii is a deciduous tree reaching to 20m height. It is in bloom from March to May. It adapts to different types of soils but prefers well-drained loamy soils.

It is grown for its fibres used in the manufacture of paper, its fine timber, and its seeds from which oil is extracted.

China:

This plant is the basic material to make Xuan paper which is produced in Jing County, Anhui Province. The paper is made from the fibers of the bark of blue sandalwood and rice straw. It is the mixture of the two types of fibers that gives to paper its qualities for painting and calligraphy, in particular the effect of incisive brushstrokes.

The quality depends on the proportions between the bark of sandalwood and the rice straw.

Xuan paper was first mentioned in ancient Chinese books such as "Li Dai Ming Hua Ji" or "Notes of Past Famous Paintings" dated mid 9th century and "Xīn Tángshū" or "New Book of Tang", edited by official scholars of the Song Dynasty, dated 1060.

Its manufacture in Jing County, dates back to the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Neighbouring cities such as Xuancheng and Taiping cities, were production centers for blue sandalwood grew there. The Jing county was under the jurisdiction of Xuanzhou Prefecture in the Tang Dynasty which gave it its name.

But by the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the paper industries in Huizhou, Chizhou and Xuanzhou were gradually transferred to Jing County since the raw materials were abundant there: Ulmus cavaleriei or Pteroceltis tatarinowii is an endemic species and the rice is grown on site. The climate with abundant rainfall provides a favourable environment for the growth of blue sandalwood and rice.

Originally, rice straw is added as a supplement to reduce the costs of raw materials. Other materials such as bamboo or mulberry will be also used during the Song and Yuan dynasties (1280-1368).

During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the paper industry grew rapidly developing numerous kinds of papers.

In the last years of the Qing Dynasty, Xuan paper manufacturing was already in decline and false Xuan papers began to be produced, using bleached bamboo fibers.

The famous famous Xuan paper is the "red star brand " named after a modern factory.

Japan:

This plant does not grow in Japan. The papers produced in Japan as senshi do not contain blue sandalwood but are made from rice straw and bamboo fibers. They are white, very smooth and they absorb ink well; as true Chinese Xuan papers they are devoted to calligraphy, painting and printing.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

It is grown from cuttings. After two years, the branches are cut and tied in bundles which are steamed for several hours in order to peel the bark. Harvesting takes place in autumn or in early winter.
The bark is then retted for several months in water so that the dark outer bark can be easily removed from the white inner bark. The remains of the black bark are scraped to keep only the whitebark.
The bark is cooked in a weak alkaline solution (wood ash or sodium carbonate) and is then bleached in the sun (or recently using hypochlorite). It is then cooked again and again sun bleached. The bark is placed on the mountainside, on rocks or on the banks of rivers. This bleaching takes several months of exposure by turning the fiber bundles.

The straw pulp previously prepared (see rice or wheat straw) is added to the bark fibers and the whole is beaten in a Hollander beater, or in the past using a water beater.

As the sheets are large (70/140cm), they are manufactured by two workers. The stack of sheets is pressed in the late afternoon. The sheets are then dried on a heating surface.

Variation: The bark and the straw are soaked in a lime water bath for a few days and then cooked in a weak alkaline solution (wood ash or sodium carbonate).

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes : kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Primary tabs

Amorphophallus konjac K. Koch

Hibiscus syriacus L.

Polygonum tinctorium Aiton

Mercurialis leiocarpa Siebold & Zucc.

Quercus acutissima Carruth.

Hibiscus cannabinus L.

Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc.

Isatis tinctoria L.

Morus australis Poir.

Ulmus cavaleriei H. Lev.

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Primary tabs

Amorphophallus konjac K. Koch

Hibiscus syriacus L.

Polygonum tinctorium Aiton

Mercurialis leiocarpa Siebold & Zucc.

Quercus acutissima Carruth.

Hibiscus cannabinus L.

Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc.

Isatis tinctoria L.

Morus australis Poir.

Ulmus cavaleriei H. Lev.

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