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Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. © Flora of China

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. © C.Laroque

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. © L.B. Vilmont

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	60 – 250 mm
Average fibre width	17 – 80 μm
Fibre ends	Round ends (rarely present).
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Longitudinal stratifications of the wall, many crosses.
Associated cells	Crystals of calcium oxalate.
Special features	Fibers are flat, ribbon-shaped and tend to twist and tangle; they have a large lumen and a membrane. Cross-section: flatter than tubular, lumen and walls of varying thickness.
Herzberg staining	Orange red.
Graff 'C' staining	Red.

Botanical classification

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Urticaceae

Synonyms:

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Hook. f. & Arn.

Urtica nivea L. (pour Boehmeria nivea var. nivea)

Ramium niveum (L.) Kuntze

Plant growing area

Originated in tropical areas of Asia.

Bhutan, Cambodia, China (South Anhui, Fujian, South Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, South Henan, Hainan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, South Shaanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Nepal, Sikkim, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.

Forest margins, thickets, moist places along streams, roadsides, often cultivated; 200-1700 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

Boehmerias form one of the genera of the Urticaceae family; the genus includes one hundred species. There are about 65 tropical or subtropical species of which 6 are endemic in China. These are flowering plants, but unlike other members of the same family, genus bears no stinging hairs.

Boehmeria nivea or white ramie or is a large perennial herb. It spreads by fragmentation of rhizomes. The stems reach 2 to 3m high. The plant likes sandy and well drained soils.

The plant is cultivated for its resistant bast fibers. It is possible to obtain 2-4 harvests per year depending on the climate of the region.

Its fibers are shorter than those of hemp, but they are very strong in the manufacture of ropes and nets. The longest fibers are reserved for the textile industry while the shortest are for paper manufacturing.

This is one of the oldest textile plants because its use would have started more than 6000 years ago (it was used in the manufacture of strips for the preparation of mummies in Egypt).

However, the fibers are difficult to extract from the plant. Indeed, it is difficult to peel them in tow because they are very embedded with gums.

The fibers are difficult to dye due to high molecular crystallinity. They have a shiny appearance that made them qualify as silk plant.

The other species appreciated for textiles, is the green ramie (Boehmeria utilis, Boehmeria tenacissima), which is also cultivated in China.

Ramie has medical uses in particular it is febrifuge. Leaves and roots are also eaten.
Boehmeria nivea can also be grown as forage plant.

China:

The cultivation of ramie is reflected in China over 3000 years. The documents refer mainly to its culture as a textile plant. It grew around in the wild in China, especially in north and west areas, such as flax, hemp, jute. All these plants are called “ma” in old Chinese documents.

According to Ying-Hsing in « Tiangong kaiwu » or « Creations of nature and work of man » (circa 1600-1660) there are two varieties, green and yellow. Stems can be harvested two or three times a year. The fiber is different from flax, hemp and jute as it is covered with pectin, which is not easy to remove by bacterial action.

The process of elimination of pectin to get the fiber, is described by Lu Chi in the "Shih Ching" from the 3rd century: Remove the bark with a bamboo or iron knife; boil the internal fibers. This textile is used as furnishing textile throughout southern China.

The process of elimination of pectin was not well known in northern China that is why the clothes made with ramie were produced and worn especially in the south. They are known to be light for summer and are worn by the common people. It also used to make curtains, mosquito nets.
The Mongolian government in the13th century tried to introduce its culture in northern China but without success because the ramie does not grow well in the north, too dry. It survived in the south to the development of cotton cultivation. In the 19th century there is a flourishing trade in Canton for export to Europe.

Ramie is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. From the Tang Dynasty (618-907), there is a strong demand for hemp textiles; hemp reserved for textiles use, will be progressively replaced by ramie in the manufacture of paper. Its use will disappear at the end of the dynasty.

Japan:

It was mainly used as a textile plant in particular in the production of a very fine fabric called Miyako-Jōfu from the Miyako-jima Islands (Okinawa Prefecture). The fabric allows making clothes well adapted to local climatic conditions.

Korea:

It has rarely been used in Korea as a paper plant but mainly as a textile plant.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Harvesting is made when stems turn to brown. The leaves are removed from the stems, the stems are steamed and the fibres stripped off. This inside bark is dried to avoid rotting.

The fibres are cooked for 2 hours with lye (fresh material might require longer cooking). They are then beaten in a Hollander beater.

Paper names

In Asia and particularly in China, Korea and Japan, the papers are intended for a wide range of use: Papers for calligraphy and art, Papers for ceremonies, Paper as a medium of exchange, money paper, Papers for making clothes, wall hangings and bedding, Papers for architecture, interior design, Papers for crafts of various kinds, for domestic purposes and leisure. The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Linum usitatissimum L. © O.W.Thomé Flora von Deutschland 1885

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

The origin of flax is uncertain but possibly the Mediterranean region and/or parts of West Asia and West Europewhere it is widely cultivated. It is cultivated throughout China except Hainan and Taiwan.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

Flax is an annual plant from 30 to 120cm in height. It requires rich and loose soil and a temperate climate is most favorable to it. In India flax is cultivated to 1900 m altitude. Its growth cycle is short, one hundred days. Flowering takes place in mid-June.

Linum usitatissimum was domesticated in the 8th millennium BC. in Syria or Iran. It was widely used in ancient Egypt as well as a textile fiber and as in diet. The use of linen was later adopted in countries around the Mediterranean, then in Northern and Western Europe (5th century BC.) and would have moved Eastward where its use would have begun in India around the 3rd century BC.

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

For papermaking, fibers are obtained from either textiles, known as rag, or from remnant hemp fibres called “textile flax tow” after the textile fibers have been recovered, either from the whole plant (usually from seed oil flax).

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

Retting allows the separation of the fibrous parts of the plant by decomposition of the pectose that binds them, thanks to the action of bacterias. It is performed either in water or on fields.
It takes place after pulling the plants, collecting them in bales, and ginning them with a comb.
After retting the fibers are dried and the dry tow is ground to remove the remaining particles of bark.
Scutching is to rid the fibers from the woody part of the plant (boon) and separate the long strands from the tow. The work ends with combing. The fibers can then be carded, spun and then woven.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Japanese

Local scripture:

あま

アマ

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Korean

Local scripture:

아마

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Chinese

Local scripture:

亚麻

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

French

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	33mm (9-70mm)
Average fibre width	20 μm (5-40μm)
Fibre ends	Pointed or sometimes blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Prominent, creases in V shape. Dislocations, cross-marking and longitudinal striations.
Associated cells	Often present: Short pitted fibres, vessels.
Special features	Epidermis with stomata Longitudinal cut : nodes extending across the width Transversal cut: thick cell, small lumen. Hemp and flax fibres are very similar, can be differentiated by the associated cells.
Herzberg staining	Peach/Red.
Graff 'C' staining	Peach/Red.

Botanical classification

Linum usitatissimum L.

Order:

Malpighiales

Family:

Linaceae

Synonyms:

Linum angustifolium Huds.

Linum humile Mill.

Plant growing area

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

It is cultivated both for its use in textiles and for its seeds in the production of oil and bread. The seed-cakes are used as fodder.

Bast fibers for textile production are separated from the stem after retting, beating, scutching and drying.

China:

Flax is one of the oldest fibers used in China in the manufacture of paper. It grew throughout China, especially in North and West areas, as ramie, hemp, jute.

All these plants are called "ma" in ancient Chinese documents.

Japan:

Used in Japan for 150 years when its cultivation started. It is mainly grown for its oil.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Primary tabs

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

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Primary tabs

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Linum usitatissimum L.

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