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Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. © Flora of China

Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. © C. Laroque

Botanical classification

Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw.

Order:

Caryophyllales

Family:

cactaceae

Synonyms:

Cactus dillenii Ker Gawl.

Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. var. dillenii (Ker Gaw.) L.D. Benson

Plant growing area

Native to the Caribbean region; widely introduced and naturalized in tropical regions.

China (Fujian, South Guangdong, South Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan), Thailand, Taiwan.

Grows in thickets, in between rocks, on sandy soils, near sea level.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China.

Plant cultivation and use

Opuntia dilenii is a cactus forming bushes 1 to 3 meters tall. The stem is branched, forming thin flat pale green pads, the cladodes, measuring less than 20-25 cm. They wear some yellowish spines. Flowering occurs in summer; the flowers are bright yellow and the purple fruits are pear-shaped or spherical. They are bitter but edible.

The plant can be found in various environments and soils. However it prefers alkaline, well-drained soils and sunny locations.

Most of the Opuntia species contain many alkaloids (3-methoxytyramine, candicine, hordenine, N-methyltyramine, tyramine ...).

The stem is said to have medicinal properties in the treatment of stomach aches and diarrhea, the fruit juice in the treatment of warts. A poultice made from the pads can be applied on wounds. A tea, prepared with pads is used in the treatment of lung ailments.

The bushes are planted around homes and gardens to create natural hedges.

The juice derived from the stem, very sticky, is added to plaster or whitewash to make it adhere better to walls.

A mucilage is extracted from the cladodes which is used as formation aid in paper making. This viscous material is added to the pulp to increase its viscosity and thus delay the settling of fibers in the tank. In addition, the mucilage allows a better dispersion of the long fibers.

China:

The species was introduced to Taiwan by the Dutch in 1645, but in 1625 Wenzheng Liu reports in the "Gazette of Yunnan" that the species is already present in Yunnan. Since then the plant has invaded large areas of coastal southern China. It grows wild in five provinces of southwestern China (including southern Tibet), in hot and dry valleys.The leaf is used as a formation aid in Yunnan during the manufacture of paper by Yi, Yao and Han in various areas. The extract is obtained by crushing the leaves.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Cladodes, cut in pieces and crushed, are placed in a cloth which is immersed in the pulp in the tank before to start the manufacturing of the sheets.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Formation aid

Language:

English

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau © J.G. Sturm 1796

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau © C.Laroque

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau © Flora Siberia

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau © T.Taylor

Identification

Fibre type	Grass
Average fibre lenght	2mm (1-3mm)
Average fibre width	70µm (50-90µm)
Fibre ends	Square.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells	Small taxodiods and cupressoid pits are present in mature fibres.
Special features	Fibres are wide, thin walled.
Herzberg staining	Pink/Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Pink/Purple

Botanical classification

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Order:

Poales

Family:

Juncaceae

Synonyms:

Juncus effusus var. solutus Fern. & Wiegand

Plant growing area

Widespread in temperate and mountainous tropical regions.

Bhutan, China (Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Shandong, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang), Korea, India (Sikkim), Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.

Grows at forest margins, wet grasslands, morasses, lakes, river banks, fields and rice fields at an altitude from 200 to 3400 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Juncus effusus is a perennial plant which grows in dense clumps that can reach 1.5 m in height by 0.5 m in diameter. The stems are straight and smooth, and contain a spongy pith. Roots are rhizomes allowing it to colonize the edges of water. Flowering occurs in summer.

The plant adapts to various types of soils and can grow in heavy clay soils; it needs moist soils and can grow in water and develop in partial shade.

Its leaves are edible and the stem pith is anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and febrifuge.
Stems are used in basketry, mats making and thatching; the straw, called igusa in Japan, is commonly used to make tatami mats, especially in Kumamoto Prefecture. Dried stems can be twisted into ropes. Pith is used as a wick for oil lamps.

The stems are used to produce paper fiber giving an off-white paper. They are used in combination with the fibers of the bark of mulberry trees for making stencil paper.

Korea:

Used in combination with the bark of paper mulberry during the Joseon period (1392-1910) as substitute material.

Preparation process for making paper

Korea:

The stems are harvested in late summer or autumn, they are cut into pieces and then soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender.

Paper names

In Asia and particularly in China, Korea and Japan, the papers are intended for a wide range of use: Papers for calligraphy and art, Papers for ceremonies, Paper as a medium of exchange, money paper, Papers for making clothes, wall hangings and bedding, Papers for architecture, interior design, Papers for crafts of various kinds, for domestic purposes and leisure. The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = papier.

Au Japon les papiers de kozo sont les plus nombreux.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Japanese

Local scripture:

イグサ

Identification

Fibre type	Grass
Average fibre lenght	2mm (1-3mm)
Average fibre width	70µm (50-90µm)
Fibre ends	Square.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells	Small taxodiods and cupressoid pits are present in mature fibres.
Special features	Fibres are wide, thin walled.
Herzberg staining	Pink/Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Pink/Purple

Botanical classification

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Order:

Poales

Family:

Juncaceae

Synonyms:

Juncus effusus var. solutus Fern. & Wiegand

Plant growing area

Widespread in temperate and mountainous tropical regions.

Grows at forest margins, wet grasslands, morasses, lakes, river banks, fields and rice fields at an altitude from 200 to 3400 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

The plant adapts to various types of soils and can grow in heavy clay soils; it needs moist soils and can grow in water and develop in partial shade.

The stems are used to produce paper fiber giving an off-white paper. They are used in combination with the fibers of the bark of mulberry trees for making stencil paper.

Korea:

Used in combination with the bark of paper mulberry during the Joseon period (1392-1910) as substitute material.

Preparation process for making paper

Korea:

The stems are harvested in late summer or autumn, they are cut into pieces and then soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = papier.

Au Japon les papiers de kozo sont les plus nombreux.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Korean

Local scripture:

골풀

Identification

Fibre type	Grass
Average fibre lenght	2mm (1-3mm)
Average fibre width	70µm (50-90µm)
Fibre ends	Square.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells	Small taxodiods and cupressoid pits are present in mature fibres.
Special features	Fibres are wide, thin walled.
Herzberg staining	Pink/Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Pink/Purple

Botanical classification

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Order:

Poales

Family:

Juncaceae

Synonyms:

Juncus effusus var. solutus Fern. & Wiegand

Plant growing area

Widespread in temperate and mountainous tropical regions.

Grows at forest margins, wet grasslands, morasses, lakes, river banks, fields and rice fields at an altitude from 200 to 3400 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

The plant adapts to various types of soils and can grow in heavy clay soils; it needs moist soils and can grow in water and develop in partial shade.

The stems are used to produce paper fiber giving an off-white paper. They are used in combination with the fibers of the bark of mulberry trees for making stencil paper.

Korea:

Used in combination with the bark of paper mulberry during the Joseon period (1392-1910) as substitute material.

Preparation process for making paper

Korea:

The stems are harvested in late summer or autumn, they are cut into pieces and then soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = papier.

Au Japon les papiers de kozo sont les plus nombreux.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Japanese

Local scripture:

こひげ

Identification

Fibre type	Grass
Average fibre lenght	2mm (1-3mm)
Average fibre width	70µm (50-90µm)
Fibre ends	Square.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells	Small taxodiods and cupressoid pits are present in mature fibres.
Special features	Fibres are wide, thin walled.
Herzberg staining	Pink/Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Pink/Purple

Botanical classification

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Order:

Poales

Family:

Juncaceae

Synonyms:

Juncus effusus var. solutus Fern. & Wiegand

Plant growing area

Widespread in temperate and mountainous tropical regions.

Grows at forest margins, wet grasslands, morasses, lakes, river banks, fields and rice fields at an altitude from 200 to 3400 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

The plant adapts to various types of soils and can grow in heavy clay soils; it needs moist soils and can grow in water and develop in partial shade.

The stems are used to produce paper fiber giving an off-white paper. They are used in combination with the fibers of the bark of mulberry trees for making stencil paper.

Korea:

Used in combination with the bark of paper mulberry during the Joseon period (1392-1910) as substitute material.

Preparation process for making paper

Korea:

The stems are harvested in late summer or autumn, they are cut into pieces and then soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = papier.

Au Japon les papiers de kozo sont les plus nombreux.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Identification

Type de fibres	Leaf
Average fibre lenght	2 - 6mm
Average fibre width	24µm (16-32µm)
Fibre ends	Tapering pointed, rounded.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Very faint and very fine.
Associated cells	Rectangular epidermal cells, typical stomata. Parenchyma, silica cells, and short, pitted vessel elements.
Special features	Smooth, lustrous fibers with irregular width. Transversal cut: polygonal oval shape, thin walls.
Herzberg staining	Blue/Gray
Graff 'C' staining	Blue/Gray

Botanical classification

Musa textilis Née

Order:

Zingiberales

Family:

Musaceae

Plant growing area

Native to Philippines and Indonesia (Borneo and Sumatra). Cultivated in Latin America.

China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan). Thailand.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan, Thailand.

Thailand:

North of Thailand

Plant cultivation and use

Abaca is a type of banana tree which fruit is not edible. It is a pseudostem plant reaching approximately 6m in height and which can live 10 years. The leaves grow from the trunk. It is grown in well-drained loamy soils.
The qualities of the plant to produce long fibers used in making ropes are known to Europeans since the 19th century. They were traditionally used in the Philippines for making fishing nets and ropes resistant to salt water.
The use of the plant to make textile fibers and paper, bags and carpets, is recent.
The very long fibers are extracted from the stem.

China:

Musa textilis may have been used in southern China to make clothes.

Japan:

It is a modern paper fiber in Japan. Abaca is used in the manufacture of kairyo hanshi or improved hanshi papers, after World War II.

In Okinawa Prefecture fibers of a local banana (musa paradisiach) are used to make paper.

Korea:

It is a modern paper fiber in Korea.

Thailand:

This is essentially a modern fiber used to make fancy paper and handicrafts. It is also used to make writing or printing papers.

Preparation process for making paper

Harvesting takes place every 3-8 months. The plant should grow 18 to 25 months before harvesting.

Collecting the fibers is performed in three stages: steaming that allows the separation of primary and secondary sheath of the leaf, stripping to get the fibres and drying in the sun.

The stem of the banana is used to make fibers for textiles: the rod is separated into strips and scraped (between a board and a knife blade) to remove the spongy part and separate the fibers. These are dried in the sun so they separate. They must be then sorted by combing and put into bundles.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

French

Identification

Fibre type	Grass
Average fibre lenght	2mm (1-3mm)
Average fibre width	70µm (50-90µm)
Fibre ends	Square.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells	Small taxodiods and cupressoid pits are present in mature fibres.
Special features	Fibres are wide, thin walled.
Herzberg staining	Pink/Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Pink/Purple

Botanical classification

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Order:

Poales

Family:

Juncaceae

Synonyms:

Juncus effusus var. solutus Fern. & Wiegand

Plant growing area

Widespread in temperate and mountainous tropical regions.

Grows at forest margins, wet grasslands, morasses, lakes, river banks, fields and rice fields at an altitude from 200 to 3400 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

The plant adapts to various types of soils and can grow in heavy clay soils; it needs moist soils and can grow in water and develop in partial shade.

The stems are used to produce paper fiber giving an off-white paper. They are used in combination with the fibers of the bark of mulberry trees for making stencil paper.

Korea:

Used in combination with the bark of paper mulberry during the Joseon period (1392-1910) as substitute material.

Preparation process for making paper

Korea:

The stems are harvested in late summer or autumn, they are cut into pieces and then soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = papier.

Au Japon les papiers de kozo sont les plus nombreux.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Grass
Average fibre lenght	2mm (1-3mm)
Average fibre width	70µm (50-90µm)
Fibre ends	Square.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells	Small taxodiods and cupressoid pits are present in mature fibres.
Special features	Fibres are wide, thin walled.
Herzberg staining	Pink/Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Pink/Purple

Botanical classification

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Order:

Poales

Family:

Juncaceae

Synonyms:

Juncus effusus var. solutus Fern. & Wiegand

Plant growing area

Widespread in temperate and mountainous tropical regions.

Grows at forest margins, wet grasslands, morasses, lakes, river banks, fields and rice fields at an altitude from 200 to 3400 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

The plant adapts to various types of soils and can grow in heavy clay soils; it needs moist soils and can grow in water and develop in partial shade.

The stems are used to produce paper fiber giving an off-white paper. They are used in combination with the fibers of the bark of mulberry trees for making stencil paper.

Korea:

Used in combination with the bark of paper mulberry during the Joseon period (1392-1910) as substitute material.

Preparation process for making paper

Korea:

The stems are harvested in late summer or autumn, they are cut into pieces and then soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = papier.

Au Japon les papiers de kozo sont les plus nombreux.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Chinese

Local scripture:

灯心草

Identification

Fibre type	Grass
Average fibre lenght	2mm (1-3mm)
Average fibre width	70µm (50-90µm)
Fibre ends	Square.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells	Small taxodiods and cupressoid pits are present in mature fibres.
Special features	Fibres are wide, thin walled.
Herzberg staining	Pink/Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Pink/Purple

Botanical classification

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Order:

Poales

Family:

Juncaceae

Synonyms:

Juncus effusus var. solutus Fern. & Wiegand

Plant growing area

Widespread in temperate and mountainous tropical regions.

Grows at forest margins, wet grasslands, morasses, lakes, river banks, fields and rice fields at an altitude from 200 to 3400 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

The plant adapts to various types of soils and can grow in heavy clay soils; it needs moist soils and can grow in water and develop in partial shade.

The stems are used to produce paper fiber giving an off-white paper. They are used in combination with the fibers of the bark of mulberry trees for making stencil paper.

Korea:

Used in combination with the bark of paper mulberry during the Joseon period (1392-1910) as substitute material.

Preparation process for making paper

Korea:

The stems are harvested in late summer or autumn, they are cut into pieces and then soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = papier.

Au Japon les papiers de kozo sont les plus nombreux.

Used part of the plant:

Stem

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis © C. Laroque

Botanical classification

Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis

Order:

Gentianales

Family:

Rubiaceae

Synonyms:

Gardenia augusta Merr.

Gardenia florida L.

Varneria augusta L.

Plant growing area

Gardenia jasminoides originated in Asia and grows in warm or subtropical climates.

China (Sichuan, Hubei), Japan, India, Taiwan, Vietnam.

In tropical areas it is found in lower altitudes.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea.

China:

Hubei, Sichuan.

Plant cultivation and use

Branched evergreen shrub with fragrant flowers, up to 1,50m-3m in height. It requires mildly acidic soil, good drainage and a sunny location. It blooms in spring or summer. The fruit is an orange berry which is used in traditional medicine as a febrifuge. It is also considered as insect repellent. The plant is as well grown as an ornamental and fragrant plant.

The fruits contain a dye, the crocin which is a carotenoid. They must be ripe to be used. The yellow dye was mainly used as a dye for fabrics; adding iron it is possible to modify the color. The color is very sensitive to acids, alkalis and to light.

China:

Gardenia jasminoides provides one of the oldest yellow dye used in China; the first evidences of its use date back to 2nd century BC and show that the dye was very popular in the Qin (221-207 BC.) and Han (202 BC.-220 AD.) dynasties.

It was used as a dye for imperial documents.

Japan:

Kuchinashi means "no mouth" because the seeds are not opening.

A yellow dye is quoted in the "Ebukuryo code" or "Garment code" dating from the 8th century AD. It may be Kuchinashi but also Kariyasu (Miscanthus tinctorius (Steud.) Hack.) or Kihada (Phellodendron amurense).

The dye is used in dyeing fabrics, paper and also in printing prints.

Korea:

This is the most widely used yellow dye. It has been used since at least the 7th-8th centuries.

It is used in combination with Indigofera tinctoria to get green color.
The papers dyed with gardenia are often used to make embossed papers (neunghwaji). Because of their repellent properties, these papers were used as book covers in bookbindings.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

The fruits are picked when ripe and then pressed. The dye is ready to use.

Other method: the fruits are dried after harvesting. The dye is obtained by boiling in water or in a mixture of water and alcohol, the dry fruits.

Japan:

The fruits are picked when ripe and then pressed. The dye is ready to use.

Other method: the fruits are dried after harvesting. The dye is obtained by boiling in water or in a mixture of water and alcohol, le dry fruits.

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Usually the pulp is dyed in the vat before forming the sheets.

Korea:

Harvesting takes place in autumn. The fruits are dried in absence of light. They will be used the following year.

The fruits are placed in water and heated up to 50 ° C maximum in order to avoid the color to turn brown. The mordant used is aluminum which allows various shades.

The papers are dyed in three ways: dyeing of the pulp (Seonyeombeop), dyeing of the sheet by dipping, brushing and spraying (Huyeombeop ), combination of the both methods (Honyeombeop). Then the paper can be hammered.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Fruit

Use for paper making:

Dye

Primary tabs

Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw.

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Musa textilis Née

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis

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Primary tabs

Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw.

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Musa textilis Née

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Juncus effusus var. decipiens Buchenau

Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis

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