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Chinese

Local scripture:

构树

Broussonetia Papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. © Flora of China

Broussonetia Papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. © C. Laroque

Broussonetia Papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Broussonetia Papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. © L.B. Vilmont

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre length	10 mm
Average fibre width	28µm (25-35µm)
Fibre ends	Ends of various shapes, pointed or blunt, scalloped, forked, spatulated.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Faint, Cross-markings.
Associated Cells	Parenchyma cells. Rectangular associated cells which turn blue.
Special features	Irregurlarly shaped fiber ends and walls. Looks like woodpulp (vessels) and straw pulp. Fibers often covered with a translucent membrane which is the most characteristic element of the paper mulberry fiber. Very long fibers. Usually thick but irregular fiber walls with crosses.
Herzberg stain	Red with blue lumen membrane.
C. Graff stain	Red with blue lumen membrane.

Botanical classification

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus papyrifera L.

Smithiodendron artocarpioideum Hu

Papyrius papyrifera (L.) Kuntze

Plant growing area

Native to the Pacific region (Polynesia).

Native or cultivated in Burma, Cambodia, China (Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, South East Xizang/Tibet, Yunnan, Zhejiang), India (Sikkim), Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam.

Grows in China until 2500m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan, Thailand.

China:

Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Henan, Hainan, Hebei, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shanxi,Shaanxi, Shandong, Sichuan, South East Xizang (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang.

Japan:

Chūbu (Niigata,Toyama, Ishikawa,Fukui, Nagano, Gifu, Shizuoka, Aichi Prefectures), Chūgoku (Shimane Prefecture), Kansai (Kyoto, Hyogo, Nara Prefectures), Kantō (Ibaraki, Tochigi, Saitama Prefectures), Kyūshū (Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Oita, Kagoshima Prefectures), Shikoku (Tokushima, Ehime, Kochi Prefectures), Tōhoku (Iwate , Miyagi, Fukushima Prefectures).

Korea:

Gyeonggi (Gapyeong, Mungyeong, Gyeongin, Yeongin), Gangwon (Wonju), Chungcheong (Danyang, Goesan) Gyeongsang (Andong, Chongsong, Uiryeong, Hamyang, Jinju), Jeolla (Imsil, Namwon, Jeonjiu).

Thailand:

Chiangmai

Plant cultivation and use

Brousonnetias are a genus of the Moraceae family, which includes several species which the main are B. papyrifera, B. kazinoki, B. kaempferi, B. kurzii.
Brousonnetia papyrifera is a deciduous shrub which grows in the wild but can be cultivated; it can reach 15m in height. The species is dioecious. The fruits are edible. It grows as well on flat ground, allowing an easy harvest, as on hillside, where land is less desirable for other cultures. It accommodates both dry lands and wetlands.
Its cultivation is quite easy but it's Brousonnetia kazinoki being simpler, the two species are often planted in mixed fields. Cultivated shrubs provide better fibers than the wild ones; they are thick, long and strong. Its growth is slow, however, the harvest can take place each year.
Shrubs provide bark used for ever in East Asia and the Pacific arc. They are mainly used in paper manufacturing, but also in traditional medicine as are the leaves and fruits of the shrub.

China:

Paper mulberry in the past and until now grows or is cultivated throughout China.

The use of Broussonetia barks in the manufacture of paper, originated probably in the ancient production of barkcloth (tapa), especially in the South and Southwest.

Paper mulberry is harvested, grown or sold for the manufacture of cloth very early, under the Shang (-17th / 11th-century).

The earliest mention of the use of bark in the manufacture of paper can be found in the biography of Cai-Lun, within the "Hou Han shu " or "History of the Later Han Dynasty" by Fan Yeh, dating from the 5th century and the use seems to have started with Cai Lun in the second century.

Papers made with paper mulberry are already popular under the Jin (265-420); under the Tang (618-907), these papers are quite common for writing. Papers for calligraphy and painting in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) are often made from a mixture of bark and bamboo or sometimes straw.

At all times they are also used for making money paper, clothes, for bookbinding, in the interiors, etc. At the end of the Tang Dynasty lightweight armors are made with paper, which are able to stop the arrows; they will be used even under the Qing (1644-1911) by the tribes of the south, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi.

Japan:

Papermakers formerly cultivated their own fields of kozo (Broussonetia papyrifera) but now with rare exceptions, kozo or kazinoki (Broussonetia kazinoki) are grown by farmers in addition to food crops and are sold to paper makers. However, some papermakers still gather together to grow and harvest the bark at the place where paper is manufactured. The paper is produced in many regions of Japan.

Kozo was used early in the manufacture of paper. The earliest papers in Japan (family records of families from Mino - Gifu, Chikuzen – Fukuoka et Buzen – Oita) dating from 702, are kozo papers.

The first great era of paper production in Japan covers the Nara period (710-794) and Heian period (794-1185). During these periods, Japan is dominated by a bureaucracy on the Chinese model that requires the use of large quantities of paper. The practice of copying sutras also requires the production of high quality white paper. The government encourages the establishment of paper mills but they remain under the control of local authorities. Local lords control the production because paper is a ware used as tax. The first papers are produced by the tamezuki method up to the Heian period when they are replaced by the nagashizuki method (see papermaking process).

Techniques improve during the Heian period and kozo and gampi (Wikstroemia) will take the place of hemp. Kozo takes the greatest space because it is easier than hemp and can be grown easily everywhere; gampi has a more limited use because as it could not be cultivated, harvesting is restricted to wild shrubs.

The second great period runs from the Kamakura period (1185-1333) until the end of the Meiji period (1868-1912). The demand for paper increases enormously during the feudal period. Production increases in quantity, quality and variety. During the Edo period (1603-1868), kozo is grown and used in paper manufactures in many parts of Japan. The paper changes its status, from taxes, it takes the status of goods exported to the large cities. This lucrative trade is under the control of the clans of samurais.

The pure kozo paper (choshi) is used for calligraphy, official documents, printing.

Papers for calligraphy are sized to prevent the ink to spread and appear dull and flat. At present papers for calligraphy may contain other fibers such as bamboo or rice straw to expand the range of aesthetic effects to be obtained.

In the arts, kozo papers are used as support for painting, prints, scroll paintings mounting, screens or sliding doors.

They are widely used in homes to cover windows, sliding doors, walls and floors and in different crafts where they are used to make domestic purpose objects, boxes, jars, umbrellas, lanterns, fans, textiles, toys etc

Finally, they are also found in religious or ceremonial articles.

They are also used for making fabrics: the paper sheet is used directly after being treated to increase its strength (Kamiko) or after making threads. The fabric is obtained by weaving mixed threads, paper threads and textiles threads such as silk, cotton or hemp (Shifu).

Korea:

The word "dak" in Korean is a generic term for "paper mulberry". The two species Broussonetia papyrifera and Broussonetia Kazinoki were hybridized early and the two names "Daknamu” (Broussonetia Kazinoki) and “Kkujinamu” (Broussonetia papyrifera) are often confused; the term Daknamu is most often used but may designate one or other of the two species. However, it seems that Broussonetia Kazinoki is most commonly used.

The plant grew throughout Korea and its cultivation increased with the development of the paper industry.

Dak fibers appear to have been used early in the manufacture of paper between the second and fourth centuries AD. The rough surface of the first papers is flattened by hammering or "dochim", a practice that seems to rise in the 8th century.

During the Goryeo period (918-1392) the government encourages the development of the paper industry and Buddhism introduced in the fourth century, became in this period the dominant religion, sacred texts are widely copied and then printed. The development of printing that allows the publication of numerous books, enhance the need to produce more paper.

The Joseon government (1392 - 1910) in front of the magnitude of demand will encourage the diversification of raw materials. Gradually fibers of various kinds are mixed with dak fibers and quality which made the reputation of Korean paper at the beginning of the Joseon period, decreased significantly from the 16th century.

The mulberry papers are used for calligraphy, official documents, printing. In the arts, they serve as support for painting, prints, scroll paintings mounting, screens or sliding doors.

Thailand:

In Thailand, the use of Broussonetia started with the Japanese occupation (linked to a growing demand for paper from Japanese) during the Second World War. It replaced the Streblus asper (Khoi), fiber traditionally used in Thailand, which was missing while Broussonetia was abundant in northern Thailand.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Harvesting takes place in the spring. The bark is peeled directly from the branches or after steaming. In this case, the branches are put in bundles and the peeling of the bark is done after steaming or cooking in boiling water inside a closed tank. The bark can then either be dried in the sun or let to ferment. In the first case, the impurities are removed by an alkaline cooking (ash lye) that can last several days. If the fermentation process is used, the barks are immersed in water to ferment for several days. They are then rinsed and brown bark is scraped with a knife. They are then immersed in a lime bath for several weeks. The operation is followed by further rinsing.

Bleaching is carried out by exposing the bark to the sun with water spraying for 7 to 11 weeks.
The bark is then crushed by various methods: in a mortar with a pestle or with a trip hammer (foot hammer or with cams activated by water power) on a stone or beaten with mallets or wooden sticks or crushed in a grinder moved by an animal.

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Harvesting begins when the leaves have fallen in November, December. The branches are cut into equal pieces of one meter in length to form bundles. These bundles are placed in an oven for two to three hours to facilitate the peeling of the bark. The bark at this stage is called "black bark" because of its outside layer to be removed before ensiling. It is scraped with a knife.

The bark is then rinsed and let to dry on racks. The bark is ready to make paper after two or three years of storage.

Before cooking the bark can be bleached: it is exposed to sunlight in the cold water of a river or on the snow. Cooking in an alkaline solution allows the removal of lignin, pectins, gums and waxes, which would block the separation of fibers during the beating. Alcaline solutions are either made from wood ash or alkaline chemicals (sodium hydroxide or lime). Cooking lasts about two hours but the duration varies depending on the age of the bark and the alkali used. After cooking the barks are rinsed to remove alkali residues. Removing of foreign particles is done by hands in cold water.

The pulp is then beaten manually with mallets or sticks, or in the Japanese hollander, the naginata.The pulp is poured into a wooden vat already filled with water and a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is whipped using a wooden rake.Two methods are used to make the sheet: nagashizuki or tamezuki. In the tamezuki method the amount of needed pulp is taken at once to form the sheet. In the nagashizuki method the sheet is made by superimposing layers of fibers successively until the desired thickness.The sheets are laid one by one on a board equipped with marks, with or without spacer (thread, gras stem) for better separation after pressing. The pressing is done by placing the paper stack under load or in a lever press. The pressing is done at the end of the workday, it lasts usually one night. To make them dry, the sheets are brushed on wooden boards which will be placed outdoors or indoors. Currently heated metal plates are also used.Finally, the sheets are sorted and usually trimmed with a knife using a template.

Korea:

Harvesting takes place between November and February. One year shrubs are preferably chosen for their soft fibers. The branches are cut to a length of 1.20m; to facilitate the peeling of the bark, the bundles are spread in a metal pot filled with water and are covered with a thick coarse cloth which will retain the steam. The device is heated for 5-7 hours.

After steaming the bark can be directly separated from the wood and then dried in the sun. The bark is called at this stage "black bark" because of its outer layer which should be removed. It is scraped with a knife.

The white bark is left to soak for one day to facilitate the removal of soluble elements and penetration into the fibers of the alkaline solution. Then the bark is cut and assembled into bunches for an alkaline cooking. The barks are placed in a vat containing a caustic lye and boiled for three to four hours. This operation removes lignin and non desirable materials (pectins, starches). Alkaline agents are either plant ashes or alkaline chemicals (soda, lime or sodium carbonate). After cooking, the barks are rinsed in running water for half a day to remove detergent and dissolved substances. The barks are immersed longer in running water, for several days in order to expose them to sunlight and to bleach them.

The removal of hard impurities is done by hand in cold water.
The pulp is then beaten by various methods: using sticks on a flat stone or a wooden disk, a vertical beater and more recently in the Japanese hollander called naginata.
To proceed to sheet making, the tank is first filled with water and the pulp is poured into the vat. The dispersing agent is added and the pulp is whipped. The methods used are called webal, ssangbal and jangpanji. In the webal method, the sheet is usually formed of two layers. The sheet is couched on a wooden board; either one sheet is couched alone, or a second sheet is laid on its surface, head to tail to form a single sheet. The Ssangbal method is derived from Japanese nagashizuki returned after 1900 (the method had been imported in the early 15th century when production should be accelerated). In Jangpanji, which is used for the manufacture of large format sheets, the mould is maintained by two people at each large end. The sheet is formed by successive layers of pulp.
In all cases, the sheets are couched with the movable screen in a stack and are separated or not by an intermediate element (thread, grass stem) to facilitate separation after pressing. Before lifting the screen, the pile of sheets is pressed with a wooden roller to eliminate air bubbles. The pressing is carried out under load or in a lever press. The draining is slow (12 hours). To be dried, the sheets are brushed on a smooth surface: wooden desks, on the floor made with oiled papers, on a heated metal plate.

Calendering or Dochim is the step that makes paper more compact, less porous and gives it a smooth surface. The sheets are moistened into small packs of ten and are then hammered on a flat stone with a foot hammer (currently a motorized hammer).

Thailand:

Harvesting takes place when the shrub has reached a certain maturity. The bark is peeled directly from the branches. The barks are first placed in clean water for a day to soften them. Then they are boiled in water with lime or in wood ash lye for 5 hours and finally rinsed. The removal of hard impurities is done by hand.
Beating is done manually using wooden mallets on a wooden table or the Japanese hollander (naginata).
The paper mould used to make the sheet is non movable, it is a cotton canvas stretched over wooden bars. Two methods are used to form the sheets: the mould is immersed and agitated to allow the distribution of the paste, the mould is set to float on the surface of the tank and the pulp measured in the right quantity and diluted in a container is poured over the mould to be evenly distributed by hand.
For drying, the mould is placed at an angle in the sun. After complete drying the sheet will be detached by peeling.

Paper names

In Asia and particularly in China, Korea and Japan, the papers are intended for a wide range of use: Papers for calligraphy and art, Papers for ceremonies, Paper as a medium of exchange, money paper, Papers for making clothes, wall hangings and bedding, Papers for architecture, interior design, Papers for crafts of various kinds, for domestic purposes and leisure. The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Thailand:

Papers made with paper mulberry fibers are a modern production in Thailand.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

French

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre length	10 mm
Average fibre width	28µm (25-35µm)
Fibre ends	Ends of various shapes, pointed or blunt, scalloped, forked, spatulated.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Faint, Cross-markings.
Associated Cells	Parenchyma cells. Rectangular associated cells which turn blue.
Special features	Irregurlarly shaped fiber ends and walls. Looks like woodpulp (vessels) and straw pulp. Fibers often covered with a translucent membrane which is the most characteristic element of the paper mulberry fiber. Very long fibers. Usually thick but irregular fiber walls with crosses.
Herzberg stain	Red with blue lumen membrane.
C. Graff stain	Red with blue lumen membrane.

Botanical classification

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus papyrifera L.

Smithiodendron artocarpioideum Hu

Papyrius papyrifera (L.) Kuntze

Plant growing area

Native to the Pacific region (Polynesia).

Grows in China until 2500m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan, Thailand.

China:

Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Henan, Hainan, Hebei, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shanxi,Shaanxi, Shandong, Sichuan, South East Xizang (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang.

Japan:

Korea:

Thailand:

Chiangmai

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Paper mulberry in the past and until now grows or is cultivated throughout China.

The use of Broussonetia barks in the manufacture of paper, originated probably in the ancient production of barkcloth (tapa), especially in the South and Southwest.

Paper mulberry is harvested, grown or sold for the manufacture of cloth very early, under the Shang (-17th / 11th-century).

Japan:

Kozo was used early in the manufacture of paper. The earliest papers in Japan (family records of families from Mino - Gifu, Chikuzen – Fukuoka et Buzen – Oita) dating from 702, are kozo papers.

The pure kozo paper (choshi) is used for calligraphy, official documents, printing.

In the arts, kozo papers are used as support for painting, prints, scroll paintings mounting, screens or sliding doors.

Finally, they are also found in religious or ceremonial articles.

Korea:

The plant grew throughout Korea and its cultivation increased with the development of the paper industry.

The mulberry papers are used for calligraphy, official documents, printing. In the arts, they serve as support for painting, prints, scroll paintings mounting, screens or sliding doors.

Thailand:

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

The bark is then rinsed and let to dry on racks. The bark is ready to make paper after two or three years of storage.

Korea:

Thailand:

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Thailand:

Papers made with paper mulberry fibers are a modern production in Thailand.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Japanese

Local scripture:

オニシバリ

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray © Flora of China

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray © L.B. Vilmont

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	5mm
Average fibre width
Fibre ends
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells
Special features	Looks like gampi and mitsumata.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining	Grey-blue.

Botanical classification

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Order:

Malvales

Family:

Thymelaeaceae

Synonyms:

Daphne japonica Siebold & Zucc.

Plant growing area

China (Jilin, Liaoning), Japan, Korea.

It grows in forest at an altitude from 800 to 1600m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Xizang (Tibet).

Plant cultivation and use

Daphnes are shrubs or sub-shrubs of the Thymelaceae family. Daphnes comprise from 50 to 95 species, according to the classifications. Some species grow in the plains, others in the mountains, in rockery; they appreciate calcareous soils. The plants are recognizable by their colorful flowers and toxic fruits.
There is a great confusion among the various Daphnes, Edgeworthias and especially Wikstroemias because their morphologies are very similar.

The etymology of daphne pseudomezereum comes on one hand, from the name of the nymph, daughter of Peneus, who pursued by Apollo, was transformed into a laurel tree to escape, and on the other hand from the Arabic word mezereum which means toxic.

Daphne pseudomezereum is a shrub, deciduous in summer, which can reach 1.5 m in height and prefers sunny areas. Flowers are pale green and flowering occurs in March to April. It is easy to propagate but its life does not exceed ten years.

The bark contains a large amount of hemicelluloses which makes it valuable in the manufacture of paper. Daphnes are the base plants for making paper at the foot of Himalayas.

China:

Daphne papers are considered as the best in Tibet where they are called dug-shog which means poison paper because of the repellent properties of the bark.

Japan:

The plant has been used in the manufacture of paper during the Nara period (710-794).

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Korean

Local scripture:

두메 닥나무

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	5mm
Average fibre width
Fibre ends
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells
Special features	Looks like gampi and mitsumata.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining	Grey-blue.

Botanical classification

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Order:

Malvales

Family:

Thymelaeaceae

Synonyms:

Daphne japonica Siebold & Zucc.

Plant growing area

China (Jilin, Liaoning), Japan, Korea.

It grows in forest at an altitude from 800 to 1600m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Xizang (Tibet).

Plant cultivation and use

The bark contains a large amount of hemicelluloses which makes it valuable in the manufacture of paper. Daphnes are the base plants for making paper at the foot of Himalayas.

China:

Daphne papers are considered as the best in Tibet where they are called dug-shog which means poison paper because of the repellent properties of the bark.

Japan:

The plant has been used in the manufacture of paper during the Nara period (710-794).

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Prunus mume (Siebold) Siebold & Zucc. © Flora of China

Prunus mume (Siebold) Siebold & Zucc. © Plantillustrations

Botanical classification

Prunus mume (Siebold) Siebold & Zucc.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Rosaceae

Synonyms:

Armeniaca mume var. mume

Plant growing area

China (Native to Sichuan and Yunnan; cultivated throughout most of China), Japan, Korea, North Laos, Taiwan, North Vietnam. Commonly cultivated in these countries.

Grows on forested slopes, on stream sides, along trails, at an altitude from 1700 to 3100 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Prunus mume is a deciduous tree, 4 to 6 meters high. It is a rustic hard pit fruit tree considered as intermediate between plum and apricot. Flowering occurs in early spring, the flowers are white or pink and very fragrant. It prefers hot and humid climate and a sunny exposure. It has a life span of several centuries.

Its cultivation has spread for ornamental purposes throughout the Far East, where it is associated to art and literature. There are about 300 ornamental cultivars. Flowering of Prunus mume is celebrated throughout the Far East.

The fruits are eaten in all kinds of shape in China, Japan and Korea: sauces, syrups, liquors, vinegar, the most common being the "salted plums" which have antiseptic and restorative properties. They also have medicinal properties: the use of mei fruit is mentioned in the Shennong bencao jing or Classic of the Materia Medica of the Heavenly plowman, compilation of pharmacopoeia texts dating from the beginning of our era. They are effective for the treatment of cough, diarrhea, and for the removal of intestinal parasites.

A pink, brown-violet dye, can be obtained from the fruit. The color varies according to the type of mordant: pale pink with alum, purple brown with iron salts.

China:

The tree and its flower are responsible for many symbols in the Confucianism: values of virtue and perseverance but also transience of life because of a beautiful but ephemeral flowering. In the literature, poetry and the arts mei is the symbol of winter and the arrival of spring and therefore perseverance and hope.
It is grown in orchards in the Yangtze valley or potted as bonsais.

Japan:

Buddhism introduced to Japan in the 6th-7th centuries, brought with it Prunus mume.
Blooms are subject in Japan to hanami which means looking at flowers. Ume were the most popular for hanami during the Nara period (710-794), but they will be overtaken by the cherrytrees since the Heian period (794-1185).

The dye is used for kesa, dress of Buddhist monks and nuns.

Korea:

In Korea, the plum blossom is a symbol for spring. It is a popular flower motif for embroidery.

Preparation process for making paper

Japan:

Fruit juice added with lime water or rice vinegar is used.

Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).
To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The papers are dyed in three ways: dyeing of the pulp (Seonyeombeop), dyeing of the sheet by dipping, brushing and spraying (Huyeombeop ), combination of the both methods (Honyeombeop). Then the paper can be hammered.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Fruit

Use for paper making:

Dye

Language:

Japanese

Local scripture:

りゆうきゆうあい

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees © Flora of China

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees © Plantillustrations

Botanical classification

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Acanthaceae

Synonyms:

Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze

Plant growing area

Native to Southeast Asia.

Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hunan, Sichuan, South East Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang) India (Bengale, Assam), South Japan (Ryukyu), Laos, Sri-Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.

Grows between 100-2000 m, usually in moist wooded places.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

Perennial herb from 50cm to 1.50m high. The blue flowers are grouped in panicles. Flowering is irregular. The plant requires moisture and light but not direct sunlight.

Indigo plants represent about a thousand species in the world.

The leaves contain a colorless glycoside of indoxyline, indican. This one by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis releases indoxyl and sugars. Indoxyl in contact with oxygen from the air, is oxidized into dihydro-indigo (greenish) and then into indigotine (blue).

Blues are used as basis for greens and purples.

The plant has also anti-inflammatory and antipyretic medicinal properties.

China:

It is the main source of indigo in Sichuan. It is used by mountain peoples of southern China for black blues.

To obtain blacks a decoction of oak or other tannin plants must be added.

It is also used to make green color with a second bath of turmeric or violet color with a second bath of safflower.

Japan:

Indigo plants used in Japan are Indigofera tinctoria, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium. The latter is the most frequently used in Japan.

Preparation process for making paper

The preparation of the dye from indigo plants involves three main techniques: the direct method of dyeing, the manufacture of shells and of starch indigo. However, there are many geographic variations related mainly to locally available ingredients.

China:

The plant is reproduced by cuttings. It is grown in shaded places for very intense blue (the amount of indigo is then greater) or in sun to get light blue.

Harvesting takes place three times a year between April and October.

Indigo starch method: Harvesting takes place during summer. Stems and leaves are placed in a pit or a tank according to the amount to be treated, coated with water and pressed with a board or a stone. Fermentation starts rapidly and causes the increase of temperature. It can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature. The green-yellow liquid that forms is filtered, then, it is violently stirred for several hours to aerate and oxidize it. The precipitation of the color is caused by the addition of lime or caustic ash. The deposit or indigo starch is collected, washed, filtered. It can be pressed into cakes or kept in wet paste.

It is in this shape that it is delivered to dyers.

It is not always necessary to perform dyeing, to mix it with ash lye or shell lime thanks to the important quantity of lime residues added during indigo starch making. Indigo is mixed with water and shaked again.

Direct method: The leaves are crushed and left to ferment in a warm water tank allowing bacterial activity. Lime or ashes are added to maintain a fixed alkali rate. The fabric is placed directly in the bath. Oxidation occurs when the cloth is removed and exposed to air. This method gives pale blues. It is necessary to repeat soaking and exposure to air and provide fresh leaves for a more intense color.

Mixed method: The dyeing is performed by mixing fresh plants and indigo starch.

Japan:

Shell method: The leaves are piled in one meter high layer in a warehouse where they are moistened and brewed regularly every three days. New leaves are added and sprayed with water during the entire operation. The temperature rises progressively according to the fermentation and can reach 70 ° C. The pile is then covered with a straw mat to retain heat and fermentation continues for one hundred days. The leaves are then crushed, drained and formed into shells or aidama which are dried. So that they can be used for dyeing, these balls are crushed and the fermentation is reactivated by addition of warm water. The dye is directly extracted from the leave ball (which requires filtering).

Indigo starch method: After harvesting, the leaves are left to dry for two days. Then, they are put to ferment in a tank covered with a small layer of water. The fermentation can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature.

The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen and oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye).

The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste, called indigo starch, is then formed into cakes.

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Usually three jars of dye are prepared with decreasing concentrations. The paper is dipped in the less concentrated dye jar and oxidation occurs in the air; the paper is then soaked in the little bit more concentrated dye. After oxidation, the sheet is dipped into the third jar with the strongest concentration. The process can be repeated several times to obtain a color more or less intense. The sheet is dried by exposing the surface to air; the color changes by oxidation.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Stem

Use for paper making:

Dye

Language:

English

Botanical classification

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Acanthaceae

Synonyms:

Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze

Plant growing area

Native to Southeast Asia.

Grows between 100-2000 m, usually in moist wooded places.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

Perennial herb from 50cm to 1.50m high. The blue flowers are grouped in panicles. Flowering is irregular. The plant requires moisture and light but not direct sunlight.

Indigo plants represent about a thousand species in the world.

Blues are used as basis for greens and purples.

The plant has also anti-inflammatory and antipyretic medicinal properties.

China:

It is the main source of indigo in Sichuan. It is used by mountain peoples of southern China for black blues.

To obtain blacks a decoction of oak or other tannin plants must be added.

It is also used to make green color with a second bath of turmeric or violet color with a second bath of safflower.

Japan:

Indigo plants used in Japan are Indigofera tinctoria, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium. The latter is the most frequently used in Japan.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

The plant is reproduced by cuttings. It is grown in shaded places for very intense blue (the amount of indigo is then greater) or in sun to get light blue.

Harvesting takes place three times a year between April and October.

It is in this shape that it is delivered to dyers.

Mixed method: The dyeing is performed by mixing fresh plants and indigo starch.

Japan:

The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen and oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye).

The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste, called indigo starch, is then formed into cakes.

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Stem

Use for paper making:

Dye

Language:

Chinese

Local scripture:

东北瑞香

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	5mm
Average fibre width
Fibre ends
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells
Special features	Looks like gampi and mitsumata.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining	Grey-blue.

Botanical classification

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Order:

Malvales

Family:

Thymelaeaceae

Synonyms:

Daphne japonica Siebold & Zucc.

Plant growing area

China (Jilin, Liaoning), Japan, Korea.

It grows in forest at an altitude from 800 to 1600m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Xizang (Tibet).

Plant cultivation and use

The bark contains a large amount of hemicelluloses which makes it valuable in the manufacture of paper. Daphnes are the base plants for making paper at the foot of Himalayas.

China:

Daphne papers are considered as the best in Tibet where they are called dug-shog which means poison paper because of the repellent properties of the bark.

Japan:

The plant has been used in the manufacture of paper during the Nara period (710-794).

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

French

Botanical classification

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Acanthaceae

Synonyms:

Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze

Plant growing area

Native to Southeast Asia.

Grows between 100-2000 m, usually in moist wooded places.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

Perennial herb from 50cm to 1.50m high. The blue flowers are grouped in panicles. Flowering is irregular. The plant requires moisture and light but not direct sunlight.

Indigo plants represent about a thousand species in the world.

Blues are used as basis for greens and purples.

The plant has also anti-inflammatory and antipyretic medicinal properties.

China:

It is the main source of indigo in Sichuan. It is used by mountain peoples of southern China for black blues.

To obtain blacks a decoction of oak or other tannin plants must be added.

It is also used to make green color with a second bath of turmeric or violet color with a second bath of safflower.

Japan:

Indigo plants used in Japan are Indigofera tinctoria, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium. The latter is the most frequently used in Japan.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

The plant is reproduced by cuttings. It is grown in shaded places for very intense blue (the amount of indigo is then greater) or in sun to get light blue.

Harvesting takes place three times a year between April and October.

It is in this shape that it is delivered to dyers.

Mixed method: The dyeing is performed by mixing fresh plants and indigo starch.

Japan:

The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen and oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye).

The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste, called indigo starch, is then formed into cakes.

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Stem

Use for paper making:

Dye

Language:

Chinese

Local scripture:

马蓝

Botanical classification

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Acanthaceae

Synonyms:

Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze

Plant growing area

Native to Southeast Asia.

Grows between 100-2000 m, usually in moist wooded places.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

Perennial herb from 50cm to 1.50m high. The blue flowers are grouped in panicles. Flowering is irregular. The plant requires moisture and light but not direct sunlight.

Indigo plants represent about a thousand species in the world.

Blues are used as basis for greens and purples.

The plant has also anti-inflammatory and antipyretic medicinal properties.

China:

It is the main source of indigo in Sichuan. It is used by mountain peoples of southern China for black blues.

To obtain blacks a decoction of oak or other tannin plants must be added.

It is also used to make green color with a second bath of turmeric or violet color with a second bath of safflower.

Japan:

Indigo plants used in Japan are Indigofera tinctoria, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium. The latter is the most frequently used in Japan.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

The plant is reproduced by cuttings. It is grown in shaded places for very intense blue (the amount of indigo is then greater) or in sun to get light blue.

Harvesting takes place three times a year between April and October.

It is in this shape that it is delivered to dyers.

Mixed method: The dyeing is performed by mixing fresh plants and indigo starch.

Japan:

The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen and oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye).

The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste, called indigo starch, is then formed into cakes.

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Stem

Use for paper making:

Dye

Primary tabs

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Prunus mume (Siebold) Siebold & Zucc.

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

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Primary tabs

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Prunus mume (Siebold) Siebold & Zucc.

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Daphne pseudomezereum A. Gray

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees

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