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Language:

Chinese

Local scripture:

桑

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

Morus alba is a deciduous tree (persistent in some tropical regions) that can reach 20 meters high. Its growth is rapid when the tree is young and then it slows down. It is propagated by cuttings. Flowering occurs from spring to summer. Quite hardy, it tolerates drought.
It produces a latex and its fruits are edible.
Fruits, roots and bark of Morus alba are used in traditional medicine, the root bark has deworming properties.
The roots, leaves and bark are used for dyeing. The leaves contain rutin (flavonols); wood and bark contain various flavones (mulberrol, mulberrochromène, cyclomulberrol, etc.
The bark yields papermaking fibers and textile fibers.
Morus alba has been widely cultivated from India, Afghanistan and Iran to South of Europe to serve as food for silkworms for a thousand years. It is now cultivated worldwide.
Originally endemic to northern China, it is now grown throughout China. The traditional tree is planted for the cultivation of silkworms especially in the provinces of Zhejiang and Jiansu. This culture began in China over four thousand years ago.

China:

There is confusion about the nature of the various shrubs providing barks in the Moraceae family. The three words for mulberry in China (Ku Chou Kou) were mixed up because their pronunciation is very close and the appearance of the shrubs is similar. The various Chinese sources show that the bark of Morus alba and Broussonetia papyrifera were both used in the manufacture of paper.

The bark of Morus Alba has a wrinkled surface; the fibers are long and very difficult to separate. Therefore, the raw material takes longer to prepare than Broussonetia papyrifera and Broussonetia kazinoki. That is may be why the bark of these last ones have been used more.

According to Pan Jixing, the fibers are used in the manufacture of paper since the Wei dynasty (220-265).
The white mulberry paper is very common as writing carrier under the Jin (265-420) and the Tang (618-907). Many Dunhuang manuscripts were papers made with chu bark.

In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) history, it is specified that mulberry (sang pi) gives fibers (sang jang), a greenish material, for money paper. This paper thick and smooth, is produced in Zhejiang as it is used by silk producers to keep the eggs of silkworms.

Japan:

The area around Omachi city (Nagano Prefecture - Chubu) was a large production area of mulberry paper because it was one of the largest growing areas of silkworms. Papermakers used to make various kinds of papers related to sericulture production (bags for the growth of cocoons, carriers for eggs).
It is used in combination with the paper mulberry during the years when the harvest of the latter is not good.

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Harvesting takes place in the spring. The bark is directly peeled from the wood or the branches are put in bundles for steaming. The peeling of the bark is done after steaming or cooking in boiling water inside a closed tank. The bark can then either be dried in the sun or to ferment. In the first case, the impurities are removed by an alkaline cooking (ash lye) that can last several days. If the fermentation process is used, the barks are immersed in water to ferment for several days. They are then rinsed and brown bark is scraped with a knife. They are then immersed in lime for several weeks. The operation is followed by further rinsing.

Bleaching is carried out by exposing the bark to the sun with water spraying for 7 to 11 weeks.
The bark is then crushed by various methods: in a mortar with a pestle or with a trip hammer (foot hammer or hammer with cams activated by water power) on a stone or beaten with mallets or wooden sticks or crushed in a grinder moved by an animal.

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Harvesting begins when the leaves have fallen in November, December. The branches are cut into equal pieces of one meter in length to form bundles. These bundles are placed in an oven for two to three hours to facilitate the peeling of the bark. The bark at this stage is called "black bark" because of its outside layer to be removed before ensiling. It is scraped with a knife.
The bark is then rinsed and allowed to dry on rack. The bark is ready to make paper after two or three years of storage.
Before cooking the bark can be bleached: it is exposed to sunlight in the cold water of a river or on the snow. Cooking in an alkaline solution allows the removal of lignin, pectins, gums and waxes, which would block the separation of fibers during the beating. Alcaline solutions are either wood ash or alkaline chemicals (sodium hydroxide or lime). Cooking lasts about two hours but the duration varies depending on the age of the bark and the alkali used. After cooking the barks are rinsed to remove alkali residues. Removing of foreign particles is done by hands in cold water.

The pulp is then beaten manually with mallets or sticks, or in the Japanese hollander, the naginata.
The pulp is poured into a wooden vat already filled with water and the dispersing agent is added to the paste which is whipped using a wooden rake.
Two methods are used to make the sheet: nagashizuki or tamezuki. In the tamezuki method the amount of needed pulp is taken at once to form the sheet. In the nagashizuki method the sheet is made by superimposing layers of fibers successively until the desired thickness.
The sheets are laid one by one on a board equipped with marks, with or without spacer (thread, stems) for better separation after pressing. The pressing is done by placing the paper stack under load or in a lever press. The pressing is done at the end of the workday, it lasts usually one night. To make them dry, the sheets are brushed on wooden boards which will be placed outdoors or indoors. Currently heated metal plates are also used.
Finally, the sheets are sorted and usually trimmed with a knife using a template.

Paper names

In Asia and particularly in China, Korea and Japan, the papers are intended for a wide range of use: Papers for calligraphy and art, Papers for ceremonies, Paper as a medium of exchange, money paper, Papers for making clothes, wall hangings and bedding, Papers for architecture, interior design, Papers for crafts of various kinds, for domestic purposes and leisure. The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Japan:

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Japan:

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

Korean

Local scripture:

뽕나무

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Japan:

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Japan:

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Japan:

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

French

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Japan:

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

English

Indigofera tinctoria L. © Flora of China

Botanical classification

Indigofera tinctoria L.

Order:

Fabales

Family:

Fabaceae

Synonyms:

Anila tinctoria (L.) Kuntze

Anila tinctoria var. normalis Kuntze

Indigofera indica Lam.

Indigofera sumatrana Gaertn.

Plant growing area

Indigofera tinctoria was formerly cultivated throughout the tropics for Indigo. Burma, China (cultivated in South West Anhui, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Yunnan), Egypt, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan (Punjab, Sind), Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam.

When spontaneous, it grows along rivers and roads up to 800m altitude throughout tropical Asia.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

Shrublets with a single stem up to 60 to 1.50m. Biennial plant, but that provides three crops a year because it grows quickly. It can acclimate to all warm countries. The plant requires soil rich enough, a humid climate or a good irrigation. Flowering occurs from May to August, when the leaves turn to a purplish hue due to the high content of indican.

The plant was introduced to Europe in ancient times from India.

Indigo plants represent about one thousand species in the world. There are several kinds of Indigofera that provide the blue color, the main ones are: coerula, arrecta, suffruticosa and tinctoria. Indigofera tinctoria is widely used worldwide as a source of the indigo dye.

The color is extracted from the leaves of the plant containing the dye, indican. This one is decomposed by enzymatic hydrolysis to sugar and indoxyline; by air oxidation, two molecules of indoxyline give a molecule of indigotin. The content of the initiator (indican) is variable depending on the species and the age of the plant.

Blues are used as basis for greens and purples.

China:

The use of indigo plants in China dates back to the early Han (208 BC-25 AD JV) as a dye and as a medicine. The demand for indigo increases under the Ming (1368-1644) due to the development of cultivation and weaving of cotton. It was used mainly in north China.

Li Shizen in « Bencao gangmu » or « Materia Medica Compendium », published in 1590, presents various kinds of indigo plants: Sunglan (Isatis tinctoria), Liaolan (Polygonum tinctorium), Mulan (Indigofera tinctoria).

Japan:

Plants used in Japan are indigo Indigofera tinctorium, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium. The latter is the most frequently used in Japan.

The indigo-colored papers are used for writing religious or official texts. They can be hammered to make them stronger.

In order to obtain an intense blue, the paper is colored by soaking in the dye bath. To obtain a light blue it is possible to dye the pulp in the tank.

Blue paper are used as cover for books.

Korea:

Indigo dyers were settled in South Korea where it is easier to cultivate the plant thanks to a warmer climate.

The dye is used as base for purple and green (in combination with Gardenia jasminoides).

Preparation process for making paper

The preparation of the dye from indigo plants involves three main techniques: the direct method of dyeing, the manufacture of shells and of starch indigo. However, there are many geographic variations related mainly to locally available ingredients.

A mordant is generally not necessary but in case it is used, it is alum and cream of tartar.

China:

When the plant is mature (at flowering time) it is cut at ground level.

Plants are macerated in a tank with water. When the fermentation is completed, lime is added to precipitate indigo. The precipitate is then dried in the shade.

Japan:

The plant is cut at ground level when it is in bloom and the leaves are turning to a reddish color because indigo content is at its highest. It will bloom again three months later and it is possible to make a second and third cut.

Direct method : The plant is used immediately: the plants are fermented in a vat of hot water for bacterial activity. Lime or ashes are added to keep a fixed alkaline rate. The dyeing is done directly in the bath.

Shell method : The fresh plant is crushed, drained and shaped into balls (shells or aidama) which are dried. These shells to be used then, are crushed and fermentation is reactivated by adding warm water. It is then up to the first process.
Indigo starch method : The plants are fermented in a tank covered with a thin layer of water. Fermentation can last up to 20 hours depending on ambient temperature. The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is whipped to make him absorb oxygen and oxidized which will permit its flocculation. The precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash). The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered; it is called indigo starch, the dough is then shaped into loaves.

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Usually three jars of dye are prepared with decreasing concentrations. The paper is dipped in the less concentrated dye jar and oxidation occurs in the air; the paper is then soaked in the little bit more concentrated dye. After oxidation, the sheet is dipped into the third jar with the strongest concentration. The process can be repeated several times to obtain a color more or less intense. The sheet is dried by exposing the surface to air; the color changes by oxidation.

Korea:

The papers are dyed in three ways: dyeing of the pulp (Seonyeombeop), dyeing of the sheet by dipping, brushing and spraying (Huyeombeop ), combination of the both methods (Honyeombeop). Then the paper can be hammered.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Dye

Language:

English

Botanical classification

Indigofera tinctoria L.

Order:

Fabales

Family:

Fabaceae

Synonyms:

Anila tinctoria (L.) Kuntze

Anila tinctoria var. normalis Kuntze

Indigofera indica Lam.

Indigofera sumatrana Gaertn.

Plant growing area

When spontaneous, it grows along rivers and roads up to 800m altitude throughout tropical Asia.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

The plant was introduced to Europe in ancient times from India.

Blues are used as basis for greens and purples.

China:

Japan:

Plants used in Japan are indigo Indigofera tinctorium, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium. The latter is the most frequently used in Japan.

The indigo-colored papers are used for writing religious or official texts. They can be hammered to make them stronger.

In order to obtain an intense blue, the paper is colored by soaking in the dye bath. To obtain a light blue it is possible to dye the pulp in the tank.

Blue paper are used as cover for books.

Korea:

Indigo dyers were settled in South Korea where it is easier to cultivate the plant thanks to a warmer climate.

The dye is used as base for purple and green (in combination with Gardenia jasminoides).

Preparation process for making paper

A mordant is generally not necessary but in case it is used, it is alum and cream of tartar.

China:

When the plant is mature (at flowering time) it is cut at ground level.

Plants are macerated in a tank with water. When the fermentation is completed, lime is added to precipitate indigo. The precipitate is then dried in the shade.

Japan:

Dyeing of papers is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Dye

Language:

Japanese

Local scripture:

あい

Polygonum tinctorium Aiton © Plantillustrations

Botanical classification

Polygonum tinctorium Aiton

Order:

Caryophyllales

Family:

Polygonaceae

Synonyms:

Ampelygonum tinctorium (Aiton)Steud.

Persicaria tinctoria (Aiton) H. Gross

Persicaria tinctoria (Aiton) Spach

Pogalis tinctoria (Aiton) Raf.

Plant growing area

Native to Vietnam and South of China, cultivated elsewhere.

China (Widespread), Japan, Vietnam.

Grows in moist valleys, stream banks at altitude 200-1000 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Polygonum tinctorium is an annual or biennial herb from 30 to 50cm high. The pale pink flowers are small and blooming occurs from June to October. The fruits are small, black and hard. The plant prefers fertile soils and sun exposure. Hot and humid climates suit it the best. Harvesting can take place twice a year before flowering.

The plant is cultivated for its medicinal properties (anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties) and as source of dye.

Indigo plants represent about a thousand species in the world. The indigo produced by Polygonum tinctorium is one of the oldest blue dyes. The species mainly exploited for its indigo in Asia currently, is the true indigo or Indigofera tinctoria.

The leaves contain a colorless glycoside of indoxyline, indican. This one by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis releases indoxyl and sugars. Indoxyl in contact with oxygen from the air, is oxidized into dihydro-indigo (greenish) and then into indigotine (blue).

Indican is found only in the leaves. The leaves of Polygonum tinctorium can provide about 5% of indigo.

The fresh leaves can be used directly for dyeing fabrics by crushing them in water and putting the fabric to dye to their direct contact. This method is used in the areas of plant cultivation. The other method is to produce an intermediate substance to be used after fermentation.

Blues are used as basis for greens and purples.

China:

The use of Polygonum tinctorium is very old in southern China and Vietnam. Its use as dye or for medicinal purpose is attested in the Western Zhou (1050-771 BC.). The technique is perfectly mastered under the Han (206 BC-220 AD) as it is evidenced by the discovery of archaeological textiles, especially silk clothing from this period.

Miao in southern Sichuan, northern Yunnan and Guizhou used it in paste form. It was the most important source of indigo throughout the Far East until the arrival of Indigofera tinctoria.

The cultivation of the plant, the indigo starch extracting and tank dyeing are described in “Qimin Yaoshu” or “Main techniques for the welfare of the people” by Jia Sixie (text on agriculture in 10 volumes dating from 6th century) as well as in the “Tiangong kaiwu” or “Creations of nature and work of man” by Song Yingxing (encyclopedia dating from 1634 or 1637).

Li Shizen in « Bencao gangmu » or « Materia Medica Compendium », published in 1590, presents various kinds of indigo plants : Sunglan (Isatsis tinctoria), Liaolan (Polygonum tinctorium), Mulan (Indigofera tinctoria).

Japan:

Indigo plants used in Japan are Indigofera tinctoria, Strobilanthes flaccidifolia, Isatis tinctoria and Polygonum tinctorium, the latter being the most frequently used in Japan.

Indigo Polygonum tinctorium is used in dyeing fabrics, papers and also in prints. It is often used to make green, mixed with Miscanthus tinctorius.

The plant has been cultivated throughout Japan but especially in Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture) where yield was very good thanks to the particularly favorable soil and climate conditions. Awa region was a major center for the indigo production that has enriched the region for a long time. Ai cultivation currently remains.

Imported from China probably in the 4th century, Polygonum tinctorium becomes the main source of indigo. From the 8th century its use by dyers is mentioned in the administration code (Shokuin-rei).

In the 18th century it is still the main source of dye stuffs. During the Edo period (1603-1868) Japan starts to import cotton and then its cultivation, to meet the restrictions on the use of silk. Indigo was the most suitable for dyeing cotton. All social classes used to wear blue clothes. Its use in printing prints begins at the same time probably.

Both methods of fermentation and direct dye are used. The first one started during the Nara period (710-794). Later during the Muromachi period (1333-1573) a complicated double fermentation method will be developed.

To obtain a light blue paper, it is possible to dye the pulp in the tank. To obtain an intense blue, the paper is colored by soaking in a dye bath.

Blue papers are used to cover books. They are also used for Buddhist sutras copies with gold ink.

Korea:

Two encyclopedias from the 18th century report the extraction process of indigo.

This is a dye that has always been very popular in Korea; the blue is called "jjok bit" or "Korean blue". The methods traditionally used are those by fermentation.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Indigo starch method: Harvesting takes place during summer. Stems and leaves are placed in a pit or a tank according to the amount to be treated, coated with water and pressed by a board or a stone. Fermentation starts rapidly and causes the increase of temperature. It can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature. The green-yellow liquid that forms is filtered, then, it is violently stirred for several hours to aerate and oxidize it. The precipitation of the color is caused by the addition of lime or caustic ash. The deposit or indigo starch is collected, washed, filtered. It can be pressed into cakes or kept in wet paste.

It is in this shape that it is delivered to dyers. It is necessary to perform dyeing, to mix it with rice straw ashes and water and shake again.

Direct method: The leaves are crushed and left to ferment in a warm water tank allowing bacterial activity. Lime or ashes are added to maintain a fixed alkali rate. The fabric is placed directly in the bath. Oxidation occurs when the cloth is removed and exposed to air. This method gives pale blues. It is necessary to repeat soaking and exposure to air and provide fresh leaves for a more intense color.

Japan:

The seeds are sown at the time of the spring equinox (mid March). They are transplanted in May and the first harvest takes place in summer. Plants are sorted, left to dry for two days and the leaves are separated from the stem by threshing

Shell method: The leaves are piled in one meter high layer in a warehouse where they are moistened and brewed regularly every three days. New leaves are added and sprayed with water during the entire operation. The temperature rises progressively according to the fermentation and can reach 70 ° C. The pile is then covered with a straw mat to retain heat and fermentation continues for one hundred days. The leaves are then crushed, drained and formed into shells or aidama which are dried.

So that they can be used for dyeing, these balls are crushed and the fermentation is reactivated by addition of warm water. The dye is directly extracted from the leave ball (which requires filtering).

Indigo starch method: After harvesting, the leaves are left to dry for two days. Then, they are put to ferment in a tank covered with a small layer of water. The fermentation can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature.

The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen and oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye).

The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste, called indigo starch, is then formed into cakes.

Double fermentation method: The leaves are prepared according to the conventional fermentation method. Then the dye is kept in jars for several months without stirring to prevent rapid oxidation. When oxidation starts, it forms purple bubbles on the surface called "indigo flowers. This foam is removed, dried and crushed to reduce it in pigment powder. These pigments are used to form sticks by mixing them with animal glue.

Dyeing of paper is made in two ways: paper pulp dyeing (sukizome) or paper sheet dyeing by dipping (hitachizome). To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by their small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Usually three jars of dye are prepared with decreasing concentrations. The paper is dipped in the less concentrated dye jar and oxidation occurs in the air; the paper is then soaked in the little beat more concentrated dye. After oxidation, the sheet is dipped into the third jar with the strongest concentration. The process can be repeated several times to obtain a color more or less intense. The sheet is dried by exposing the surface to air; the color changes by oxidation.

Korea:

Shell method: The leaves are piled in a tank or a pit and moistened and brewed regularly. The temperature rises progressively according to fermentation. They are then crushed, drained and formed into shells which are left to dry. They are delivered to dyers in this shape.

So that they can be used for dyeing, these balls are crushed and the fermentation is reactivated by addition of warm water. The dye is directly extracted from the leave balls.

Indigo starch method: After harvesting the leaves are left to dry for two days. They are left to ferment in a tank covered with a small layer of water. The fermentation can take up to 20 hours depending on the ambient temperature. The liquid is then collected and filtered. It is beaten to make him absorb oxygen to oxidize. Precipitation is done by adding an alkali (caustic lime or ash lye). The deposit is washed, boiled and filtered. The paste is then formed into cakes or kept into mud called Niram.

The papers are dyed in three ways: dyeing of the pulp (Seonyeombeop), dyeing of the sheet by dipping, (Huyeombeop ). Then the paper can be hammered.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Dye

Primary tabs

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Indigofera tinctoria L.

Indigofera tinctoria L.

Polygonum tinctorium Aiton

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Primary tabs

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Morus alba L.

Indigofera tinctoria L.

Indigofera tinctoria L.

Polygonum tinctorium Aiton

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