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Synonyms:

Oryza formosana Masam. & Suzuki

Oryza sativa var. formosana (Masam. & Suzuki) Yeh & Henderson

Plant growing area

There were several centers of domestication in China south of Yangtze, Thailand and northern India.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

Burma, China, Korea, India, Japan.

China:

Anhui, Zhejiang.

Plant cultivation and use

Rice is one of the three main food grasses. It is found from sea level to 2000 meters. It is an annual plant, with a stem topped by a thatch, ranging from one meter to five meters (floating rice).

Rice begins to be cultivated from the Neolithic period (-8000). The wild relative which Oryza sativa comes from is Oryza rufipogon which existence is attested from about 650,000 years.
Oryza sativa is derived from various events of domestication around -5000 in Northern India, and at the border between China and Burma.

Rice is regularly cultivated in China as early as -3000. Its cultivation came to Japan to -1700 and covers most areas in warm tropical Asia.

The straw is an abundant agricultural by-product that finds many uses: papermaking fibers, biomass fuel, mulch for animals etc.

In the paper industry, it is often mixed with long bast fibers to reduce the effect of diffusion of ink in paper. Making paper from rice or wheat straws is simpler than with other materials because they are softer materials, and they require less preparation time.

China:

Su I-Chien (953-996), in the "Phu Weng Fang Ssu" or "Four implements for writing in a scholar's studio" says that rice and wheat straws are used in Zhejiang and produce an excellent paper when mixed with rattan.

The most famous paper containing rice straw is Xuan zhi. This paper is produced in Jing County, Anhui Province. It is made from fibers from the bark of blue sandalwood and rice straw. It is the mixture of the two types of fibers that gives the paper its qualities for painting and calligraphy, in particular the effect of sharp brushstrokes.

Xuan paper is cited in the "Xīn Tángshū" or “New history of Tang” (edited by official scholars of the Song Dynasty), in 1060.

Its manufacture in Jing County dates back to Tang Dynasty (618-907). Neighboring cities around Xuancheng and Taiping were production centers. Jing County during the Tang period was under the juridiction of Xuanzhou prefecture, which gave it its name. Gradually during the Song dynasty (960-1279), papermaking moved essentially towards Jing County because the raw materials were abundant: Ulmus cavaleriei or Pteroceltis tatarinowii is an endemic species there and the rice is grown on site. Originally, rice straw was added as a supplement to reduce the fibrous raw material costs. Other materials such as bamboo are also used during the Song and Yuan dynasties ((1280-1368).

During the Ming (1368-1644), paper was made by mixing rice straw and bamboo : Song Yingxing (1587-1646) in the "Tian Gong Kai Wu" or "Creations of nature and work of man " (encyclopedia dated 1637) mentions the blending of straw with bamboo in the manufacture of wrapping paper.
Currently straw is still one of the most used materials in the production of packaging paper, ceremony papers and sanitary papers.

Japan:

Rice straw was used at the time of mechanization with the search for new materials. These tests were conducted in Kochi Prefecture during the Meiji period (1868-1912).

Straw is also used in the manufacture of paper kairyo hanshi or improved hanshi after the World War II.

In Japan various parts of the straw are used: the highest quality is produced with the portion of the stem that goes from the first node to the head (sube), the second quality is composed of the part below the first node (nakanuki ) and the remainder gives the worst quality (dou).

Rice flour is used to give gloss to the paper and can be mixed with chalk, kaolin to load paper.

Korea:

From the Joseon period (1392-1910), raw materials traditionally used for paper production, mainly bark of Broussonetias begin to fail. Papermakers face to a growing demand for paper stimulated by the development of publications initiated during the Goryeo period (907-1392). Other plants will be used to provide a fiber supplement such as wisteria, rice, oat and barley straws, bamboo, jute, cotton and hemp but also willow leaves, reeds, the bark and needles of pine.

The various straws are used in combination with the bark of Broussonetia. They are additional raw materials to reduce the cost.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

After harvesting and removing of the seeds, the straw is beaten to soften it. Then the stalks are layered with lime in a pit covered with earth during 6 months; this allows rapid disintegration.

The straw is then placed in fine mesh bags suspended from poles in running water to remove the whole lime.

The beating is shorter and less violent than for bamboo or bark pulps.

"Tian Gong Kai Wu" variant: the straw is beaten at first then after immersion in lime water, it is buried in a pit. After disintegration, straw, placed in cloth bags, is rinsed in river.

Japan:

Straw is boiled in caustic soda.

Paper names

In Asia and particularly in China, Korea and Japan, the papers are intended for a wide range of use: Papers for calligraphy and art, Papers for ceremonies, Paper as a medium of exchange, money paper, Papers for making clothes, wall hangings and bedding, Papers for architecture, interior design, Papers for crafts of various kinds, for domestic purposes and leisure. The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Straw

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Chinese

Local scripture:

稻草

Identification

Fibre type	Straw
Average fibre lenght	1.4mm (0.4 – 3.5)
Average fibre width	8 µm (4 – 16)
Fibre ends	Scalloped or pointed.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Faint fiber wall
Associated cells	Vessel elements relatively small and abundant. Numerous small parenchyma cells in barrel-shaped, with thin-walled. Pitted vessel elements. Epidermal cells in sawtooth-shape. Prickle hairs. Occasional presence of siliceous phytoliths elements.
Special features	Short fibers with thick and narrow walls. Numerous narrow epidermal cells with conical protuberances.
Herzberg staining	Dark purple.
Graff 'C' staining	Reddish blue.

Botanical classification

Oryza sativa L.

Order:

Poales

Family:

Synonyms:

Oryza formosana Masam. & Suzuki

Oryza sativa var. formosana (Masam. & Suzuki) Yeh & Henderson

Plant growing area

There were several centers of domestication in China south of Yangtze, Thailand and northern India.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

Burma, China, Korea, India, Japan.

China:

Anhui, Zhejiang.

Plant cultivation and use

Rice is one of the three main food grasses. It is found from sea level to 2000 meters. It is an annual plant, with a stem topped by a thatch, ranging from one meter to five meters (floating rice).

Rice is regularly cultivated in China as early as -3000. Its cultivation came to Japan to -1700 and covers most areas in warm tropical Asia.

The straw is an abundant agricultural by-product that finds many uses: papermaking fibers, biomass fuel, mulch for animals etc.

China:

Xuan paper is cited in the "Xīn Tángshū" or “New history of Tang” (edited by official scholars of the Song Dynasty), in 1060.

Japan:

Rice straw was used at the time of mechanization with the search for new materials. These tests were conducted in Kochi Prefecture during the Meiji period (1868-1912).

Straw is also used in the manufacture of paper kairyo hanshi or improved hanshi after the World War II.

Rice flour is used to give gloss to the paper and can be mixed with chalk, kaolin to load paper.

Korea:

The various straws are used in combination with the bark of Broussonetia. They are additional raw materials to reduce the cost.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

After harvesting and removing of the seeds, the straw is beaten to soften it. Then the stalks are layered with lime in a pit covered with earth during 6 months; this allows rapid disintegration.

The straw is then placed in fine mesh bags suspended from poles in running water to remove the whole lime.

The beating is shorter and less violent than for bamboo or bark pulps.

"Tian Gong Kai Wu" variant: the straw is beaten at first then after immersion in lime water, it is buried in a pit. After disintegration, straw, placed in cloth bags, is rinsed in river.

Japan:

Straw is boiled in caustic soda.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Straw

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

French

Identification

Fibre type	Straw
Average fibre lenght	1.4mm (0.4 – 3.5)
Average fibre width	8 µm (4 – 16)
Fibre ends	Scalloped or pointed.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Faint fiber wall
Associated cells	Vessel elements relatively small and abundant. Numerous small parenchyma cells in barrel-shaped, with thin-walled. Pitted vessel elements. Epidermal cells in sawtooth-shape. Prickle hairs. Occasional presence of siliceous phytoliths elements.
Special features	Short fibers with thick and narrow walls. Numerous narrow epidermal cells with conical protuberances.
Herzberg staining	Dark purple.
Graff 'C' staining	Reddish blue.

Botanical classification

Oryza sativa L.

Order:

Poales

Family:

Synonyms:

Oryza formosana Masam. & Suzuki

Oryza sativa var. formosana (Masam. & Suzuki) Yeh & Henderson

Plant growing area

There were several centers of domestication in China south of Yangtze, Thailand and northern India.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

Burma, China, Korea, India, Japan.

China:

Anhui, Zhejiang.

Plant cultivation and use

Rice is one of the three main food grasses. It is found from sea level to 2000 meters. It is an annual plant, with a stem topped by a thatch, ranging from one meter to five meters (floating rice).

Rice is regularly cultivated in China as early as -3000. Its cultivation came to Japan to -1700 and covers most areas in warm tropical Asia.

The straw is an abundant agricultural by-product that finds many uses: papermaking fibers, biomass fuel, mulch for animals etc.

China:

Xuan paper is cited in the "Xīn Tángshū" or “New history of Tang” (edited by official scholars of the Song Dynasty), in 1060.

Japan:

Rice straw was used at the time of mechanization with the search for new materials. These tests were conducted in Kochi Prefecture during the Meiji period (1868-1912).

Straw is also used in the manufacture of paper kairyo hanshi or improved hanshi after the World War II.

Rice flour is used to give gloss to the paper and can be mixed with chalk, kaolin to load paper.

Korea:

The various straws are used in combination with the bark of Broussonetia. They are additional raw materials to reduce the cost.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

After harvesting and removing of the seeds, the straw is beaten to soften it. Then the stalks are layered with lime in a pit covered with earth during 6 months; this allows rapid disintegration.

The straw is then placed in fine mesh bags suspended from poles in running water to remove the whole lime.

The beating is shorter and less violent than for bamboo or bark pulps.

"Tian Gong Kai Wu" variant: the straw is beaten at first then after immersion in lime water, it is buried in a pit. After disintegration, straw, placed in cloth bags, is rinsed in river.

Japan:

Straw is boiled in caustic soda.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Straw

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

Morus alba is a deciduous tree (persistent in some tropical regions) that can reach 20 meters high. Its growth is rapid when the tree is young and then it slows down. It is propagated by cuttings. Flowering occurs from spring to summer. Quite hardy, it tolerates drought.
It produces a latex and its fruits are edible.
Fruits, roots and bark of Morus alba are used in traditional medicine, the root bark has deworming properties.
The roots, leaves and bark are used for dyeing. The leaves contain rutin (flavonols); wood and bark contain various flavones (mulberrol, mulberrochromène, cyclomulberrol, etc.
The bark yields papermaking fibers and textile fibers.
Morus alba has been widely cultivated from India, Afghanistan and Iran to South of Europe to serve as food for silkworms for a thousand years. It is now cultivated worldwide.
Originally endemic to northern China, it is now grown throughout China. The traditional tree is planted for the cultivation of silkworms especially in the provinces of Zhejiang and Jiansu. This culture began in China over four thousand years ago.

China:

There is confusion about the nature of the various shrubs providing barks in the Moraceae family. The three words for mulberry in China (Ku Chou Kou) were mixed up because their pronunciation is very close and the appearance of the shrubs is similar. The various Chinese sources show that the bark of Morus alba and Broussonetia papyrifera were both used in the manufacture of paper.

The bark of Morus Alba has a wrinkled surface; the fibers are long and very difficult to separate. Therefore, the raw material takes longer to prepare than Broussonetia papyrifera and Broussonetia kazinoki. That is may be why the bark of these last ones have been used more.

According to Pan Jixing, the fibers are used in the manufacture of paper since the Wei dynasty (220-265).
The white mulberry paper is very common as writing carrier under the Jin (265-420) and the Tang (618-907). Many Dunhuang manuscripts were papers made with chu bark.

In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) history, it is specified that mulberry (sang pi) gives fibers (sang jang), a greenish material, for money paper. This paper thick and smooth, is produced in Zhejiang as it is used by silk producers to keep the eggs of silkworms.

Japan:

The area around Omachi city (Nagano Prefecture - Chubu) was a large production area of mulberry paper because it was one of the largest growing areas of silkworms. Papermakers used to make various kinds of papers related to sericulture production (bags for the growth of cocoons, carriers for eggs).
It is used in combination with the paper mulberry during the years when the harvest of the latter is not good.

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Harvesting takes place in the spring. The bark is directly peeled from the wood or the branches are put in bundles for steaming. The peeling of the bark is done after steaming or cooking in boiling water inside a closed tank. The bark can then either be dried in the sun or to ferment. In the first case, the impurities are removed by an alkaline cooking (ash lye) that can last several days. If the fermentation process is used, the barks are immersed in water to ferment for several days. They are then rinsed and brown bark is scraped with a knife. They are then immersed in lime for several weeks. The operation is followed by further rinsing.

Bleaching is carried out by exposing the bark to the sun with water spraying for 7 to 11 weeks.
The bark is then crushed by various methods: in a mortar with a pestle or with a trip hammer (foot hammer or hammer with cams activated by water power) on a stone or beaten with mallets or wooden sticks or crushed in a grinder moved by an animal.

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Harvesting begins when the leaves have fallen in November, December. The branches are cut into equal pieces of one meter in length to form bundles. These bundles are placed in an oven for two to three hours to facilitate the peeling of the bark. The bark at this stage is called "black bark" because of its outside layer to be removed before ensiling. It is scraped with a knife.
The bark is then rinsed and allowed to dry on rack. The bark is ready to make paper after two or three years of storage.
Before cooking the bark can be bleached: it is exposed to sunlight in the cold water of a river or on the snow. Cooking in an alkaline solution allows the removal of lignin, pectins, gums and waxes, which would block the separation of fibers during the beating. Alcaline solutions are either wood ash or alkaline chemicals (sodium hydroxide or lime). Cooking lasts about two hours but the duration varies depending on the age of the bark and the alkali used. After cooking the barks are rinsed to remove alkali residues. Removing of foreign particles is done by hands in cold water.

The pulp is then beaten manually with mallets or sticks, or in the Japanese hollander, the naginata.
The pulp is poured into a wooden vat already filled with water and the dispersing agent is added to the paste which is whipped using a wooden rake.
Two methods are used to make the sheet: nagashizuki or tamezuki. In the tamezuki method the amount of needed pulp is taken at once to form the sheet. In the nagashizuki method the sheet is made by superimposing layers of fibers successively until the desired thickness.
The sheets are laid one by one on a board equipped with marks, with or without spacer (thread, stems) for better separation after pressing. The pressing is done by placing the paper stack under load or in a lever press. The pressing is done at the end of the workday, it lasts usually one night. To make them dry, the sheets are brushed on wooden boards which will be placed outdoors or indoors. Currently heated metal plates are also used.
Finally, the sheets are sorted and usually trimmed with a knife using a template.

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Japan:

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Language:

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	12,2mm
Average fibre width	30,2µ
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent wall.
Herzberg staining	Purple
Graff 'C' staining	Purple

Botanical classification

Morus alba L.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Synonyms:

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.

Morus atropurpurea Roxb.

Morus indica L.

Morus intermedia Perr.

Morus multicaulis Perr.

Morus tatarica L.

Plant growing area

Cultivated throughout the world. China (cultivated throughout China), India, Pakistan.

Found in disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

China:

Jiangsu, Zheijiang.

Japan:

Chubu (Nagano prefecture), Shikoku (Tokushima prefecture).

Plant cultivation and use

China:

Japan:

Korea:

The bark is used in mixture with paper mulberry fibers during the Joseon period (1392-1910). The roots are used as yellow dye.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Paper names

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Leaf

Bark

Use for paper making:

Dye

Fiber

Morus australis Poir. © CFH Nature Museum

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	2,2 mm
Average fibre width	30 µm
Fibre ends	Blunt.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross-markings.
Associated cells
Special features	Less prominent fiber wall.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining

Botanical classification

Morus australis Poir.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Synonyms:

Morus acidosa Griff.

Morus alba L. var. indica Bureau

Morus alba var. nigriformis Bureau

Morus alba var. stylosa Bureau

Morus australis var. hastifolia (F. T. Wang & T. Tang ex Z.Y. Cao) Z.Y. Cao

Morus australis var. incisa C. Y. Wu

Morus australis var. inusitata (H. Lév.) C.Y. Wu

Morus australis var. linearipartita Z.Y. Cao

Morus australis var. oblongifolia Z.Y. Cao

Morus bombycis Koidz.

Morus bombycis var. angustifolia Koidz.

Morus bombycis var. bifida Koidz.

Morus bombycis var. longistyla Koidz.

Morus bombycis var. tiliifolia Koidz.

Morus cavaleriei H. Lév.

Morus formosensis Hotta

Morus hastifolia F. T. Wang & T. Tang ex Z.Y. Cao

Morus inusitata H. Lév.

Morus longistylus Diels

Morus nigriformis (Bureau) Koidz.

Morus stylosa Ser. var. ovalifolia Ser.

Plant growing area

Grows in temperate and warm areas, in tropical areas.

Bhutan, Burma, China (Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, South East Xizang/Tibet, Yunnan, Zhejiang), India (Sikkim), Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Okinawa), Korea, Nepal, Taiwan.

Grows in limestone areas, forest margins, on mountain slopes, at an altitude from 500 to 2000 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea.

Plant cultivation and use

Morus australis is a deciduous tree growing 10-15m. It is in flower from March to May. It prefers a warm well-drained loamy soil in a sunny position but can accommodate to various kinds of soils and grow in semi-shade.

The fruit, the bark, the leaf and the root have medicinal properties. The fruits are edible.

The fruits contain anthocyanins which are pigments. The colours vary from orange, red, purple, black, and blue. They are water-soluble and easily extractable.

Root contains also yellow dyes used for dyeing paper.The bark is used for making paper.

China:

The fibers are supposed to be used in papermaking.

Korea:

In Korea the bark is used to get fiber for papermaking; the roots are used for dye or medicine.

Paper names

The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Root

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Dye

Language:

French

Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. © Satheesan.vn

Botanical classification

Abelmoschus moschatus Medik.

Order:

Malvales

Family:

Malvaceae

Synonyms:

Abelmoschus abelmoschus (L.) Karsten

Abelmoschus officinalis Endl.

Abelmoschus moschatus var. betulifolius (Mast.) Hochr.

Hibiscus abelmoschus L.

Hibiscus abelmoschus (L.) Karsten

Hibiscus chinensis Roxb.

Hibiscus cardiophyllus Baill.

Hibiscus collinsianus Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray

Hibiscus moschatus (Medik.) Salisb.

Plant growing area

China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, Jiangxi, Yunnan), Cambodia, India, Laos, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.

Grows on mountain slopes and valleys, stream sides and flat areas at an altitude from 600 to 1100m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan.

China:

Guangdong.

Plant cultivation and use

Perennial herb reaching 1-2 m heigth. Its growth is rapid. The plant prefers non acid and well drained soils and sunny areas. It is in flowers from June to October.

The seeds have medicinal properties, they are diuretic, emollient and antispasmodic.

An edible oil is extracted from the seeds and leaves.

The fibers obtained from the bark of the stems are used to make ropes.

A mucilage is extracted from the roots which is used as formation aid in paper making. This viscous material is added to the pulp to increase its viscosity and thus delay the settling of fibers in the tank. In addition, the mucilage allows a better dispersion of the long fibers.

China:

Unclear whether the plant has been used as formation aid or as sizing agent.

Japan:

Used as formation aid.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Roots are cleaned, cut in slices and dipped during one night in cold water.

The mucilage is filtered through a cloth and poured into the pulp.

Japan:

Roots are cleaned, crushed and dipped during one night in cold water.

The mucilage is filtered through a cloth and poured into the pulp.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Use for paper making:

Formation aid

Sizing agent

Hibiscus manihot L. var. manihot © Flora of China

Hibiscus manihot L. var. manihot © C. Laroque

Botanical classification

Hibiscus manihot L. var. manihot

Order:

Malvales

Family:

Malvaceae

Synonyms:

Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik. var. manihot

Hibiscus japonicus Miq.

Plant growing area

China: (Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Sichuan, Yunnan), India, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Philippines, Taiwan, North Thailand.

Grows in grasslands, on streamsides, margins of cultivated fields, from 1000 to 2100 m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Plant cultivation and use

Hibiscus manihot is a perennial plant with annuals flowers, 1 to 2 m in height that grows rather in temperate zones. It prefers well-drained soil but of various kinds and a sunny exposure. The flower color varies from white to light yellow. Flowering occurs between August and October.
The plant has medicinal properties, it is emmenagogue and sedative for pain. Its flowers and leaves are edible.

The roots contain a mucilage which is a polysaccharide, a copolymer of D-galacturonic acid and L-rhamnose. This viscous material is added to pulp to increase its viscosity and thus delay the settling of fibers in the tank. In addition, the mucilage allows a better dispersion of the long fibers. The solution is unstable and its viscosity decreases with the heat, prolonged exposure to air and mechanical agitation. So, during the work, the papermaker will add mucilage gradually as its viscosity decreases.

In the late 19th century, it seems that the use of the mucilage from the Hibiscus manihot replaced the use of other plants to become the dominant mucilage throughout East Asia.

China:

Hibiscus manihot is used during the South Song dynasty (1127-1279) but the beginning of its use is probably older. The use of Hibiscus manihot is quoted in the stories of "Guixinzashi " or "Miscellaneous news from Guixin street" by Zhou Mi (mid 13th century). Other references show that it is still used as formation aid at the end of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), particularly for the manufacture of paper made with paper mulberry fibers; its use is documented in the "Wulixiaoshi" or "Some Knowledge of Physics" written by Fang Yishi in 1643.

Japan:

The plant grows wild throughout Japan. When it is grown on rich soils it has less coarse roots than the plants grown on poor soils. The leaves and flowers are removed to allow better root growth. The plant is torn from the ground when the leaves turn yellow, the roots are separated from the rest of the plant, bundled and placed in a dry place.

During the warm season the mucilage should be used immediately because it quickly loses its properties by fermenting.

Korea:

The plant was probably imported from China. In the past all plant parts were used to give the mucilage (stem, leaves, roots).

She is quoted in an encyclopedia dated 1850 “Ojuyeonmunjangjeonsango” by Igyujyeong.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

The plant is sown in spring and harvest usually takes place in late fall before the frost. The flowers are removed regularly to allow better root growth.

The plant is torn from the ground when the leaves turn yellow. The outer bark is peeled from the root. The root is crushed or coarsely grated. It is then placed in a cloth bag and submerged in a bucket of water. After formation of the mucilage, the bag is pressed or suspended to extract it.

Japan:

Seeds are sown at the same time as mungo beans.

The plant is torn from the ground when the leaves turn yellow, usually in June and it is dried until a later use. Or the roots are recovered to be used immediately, in November December. They can also be kept immersed in creosote.

The outer bark is peeled from the root. The root is crushed or coarsely grated. It is then placed in a cloth bag and submerged in a bucket of water. After formation of the mucilage the bag is pressed or suspended to extract it.

Korea:

The plant is sown in spring and harvest usually takes place in late fall before the frost. The flowers are removed regularly to allow better root growth.

Used part of the plant:

Root

Use for paper making:

Formation aid

Identification

Fibre type	Straw
Average fibre lenght	1.4mm (0.4 – 3.5)
Average fibre width	8 µm (4 – 16)
Fibre ends	Scalloped or pointed.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Faint fiber wall
Associated cells	Vessel elements relatively small and abundant. Numerous small parenchyma cells in barrel-shaped, with thin-walled. Pitted vessel elements. Epidermal cells in sawtooth-shape. Prickle hairs. Occasional presence of siliceous phytoliths elements.
Special features	Short fibers with thick and narrow walls. Numerous narrow epidermal cells with conical protuberances.
Herzberg staining	Dark purple.
Graff 'C' staining	Reddish blue.

Botanical classification

Oryza sativa L.

Order:

Poales

Family:

Synonyms:

Oryza formosana Masam. & Suzuki

Oryza sativa var. formosana (Masam. & Suzuki) Yeh & Henderson

Plant growing area

There were several centers of domestication in China south of Yangtze, Thailand and northern India.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

Burma, China, Korea, India, Japan.

China:

Anhui, Zhejiang.

Plant cultivation and use

Rice is one of the three main food grasses. It is found from sea level to 2000 meters. It is an annual plant, with a stem topped by a thatch, ranging from one meter to five meters (floating rice).

Rice is regularly cultivated in China as early as -3000. Its cultivation came to Japan to -1700 and covers most areas in warm tropical Asia.

The straw is an abundant agricultural by-product that finds many uses: papermaking fibers, biomass fuel, mulch for animals etc.

China:

Xuan paper is cited in the "Xīn Tángshū" or “New history of Tang” (edited by official scholars of the Song Dynasty), in 1060.

Japan:

Rice straw was used at the time of mechanization with the search for new materials. These tests were conducted in Kochi Prefecture during the Meiji period (1868-1912).

Straw is also used in the manufacture of paper kairyo hanshi or improved hanshi after the World War II.

Rice flour is used to give gloss to the paper and can be mixed with chalk, kaolin to load paper.

Korea:

The various straws are used in combination with the bark of Broussonetia. They are additional raw materials to reduce the cost.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

After harvesting and removing of the seeds, the straw is beaten to soften it. Then the stalks are layered with lime in a pit covered with earth during 6 months; this allows rapid disintegration.

The straw is then placed in fine mesh bags suspended from poles in running water to remove the whole lime.

The beating is shorter and less violent than for bamboo or bark pulps.

"Tian Gong Kai Wu" variant: the straw is beaten at first then after immersion in lime water, it is buried in a pit. After disintegration, straw, placed in cloth bags, is rinsed in river.

Japan:

Straw is boiled in caustic soda.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Straw

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Broussonetia Kazinoki Siebold & Zucc. © Flora of China

Broussonetia Kazinoki Siebold & Zucc. © C.Laroque

Broussonetia Kazinoki Siebold & Zucc. © T.H. Choi

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre lenght	8,7 mm
Average fibre width	22,5 µm
Fibre ends	Variable.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Cross markings. Less prominent fiber wall.
Associated cells
Special features	Transparent membrane around fibers.
Herzberg staining	Purple.
Graff 'C' staining	Reddish brown.

Botanical classification

Broussonetia kazinoki Siebold & Zucc.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Synonyms:

Broussonetia kazinoki var. ruyangensis P.H. Ling & X.W. Wei

Broussonetia monoica Hance

Plant growing area

Can be traced along migration routes from China through Southeast Asia and into the Pacific regions.

Native or cultivated in China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), Japan, Korea,Taiwan.

Grows on forest margins, low mountains.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan.

Japan:

Tohoku (Fukushima and Miyagi Prefectures).

Korea:

Gyeongsang, Jeolla.

Plant cultivation and use

Brousonnetias are a genus of the Moraceae family, which includes several species which the main are papyrifera, B. kazinoki, B. kaempferi, B. kurzii.

Brousonnetia kazinoki is a deciduous shrub which grows in the wild but can be cultivated; it can reach 15m in height. The species is dioecious. Flowering occurs from April to May. The fruits are edible. It grows as well on flat ground, allowing an easy harvest, as on hillside, where land is less desirable for other cultures. It accommodates both dry lands as wetlands.

Cultivation of Brousonnetia kazinoki is easier than that of Broussonnetia payrifera and the two species are often planted in mixed fields.

Shrubs provide bark used for ever in East Asia and the Pacific arc. They are mainly used in paper manufacturing, but also in traditional medicine as are the leaves and fruits of the shrub.

The leaves of Broussonetia Kazinoki are wider than those of Broussonetia papyrifera. In Japan, they were used during the summer festivals of Tanabata to write poems.

Cultivated shrubs provide better fiber than the wild ones; they are thick, long and strong. The fibers of Kazinoki are longer and stronger than those of Broussonetia papyrifera. Its growth is slow, however, the harvest can take place each year.

China:

Paper mulberry in the past and until now grows or is cultivated throughout China.

Japan:

The main production areas of the bark are in the Fukushima Prefecture.

It is difficult to separate the use of kozo from the use of kazinoki in the manufacture of paper, their use having evolved over time (analysis of ancient documents does not provide information because it is impossible to determine both species by analyzing fiber). However, it seems that Broussonetia papyrifera is the most commonly used. Currently the both species are often grown together and used as a mixture. The method of preparation does not change from one species to another.
Refer to Broussonetia payrifera for historical elements.

The pure kozo paper (choshi) is used for calligraphy, official documents, printing.

Papers for calligraphy are sized to prevent the ink to spread and appear dull and flat. At present papers for calligraphy may contain other fibers such as bamboo or rice straw to expand the range of aesthetic effects to be obtained.

In the arts, kozo papers are used as support for painting, prints, scroll paintings mounting, screens or sliding doors.

They are widely used in homes to cover windows, sliding doors, walls and floors and in different crafts where they are used to make domestic purpose objects, boxes, jars, umbrellas, lanterns, fans, textiles, toys etc

Finally, they are also found in religious or ceremonial articles.

They are also used for making fabrics: the paper sheet is used directly after being treated to increase its strength (Kamiko) or after making threads. The fabric is obtained by weaving mixed threads, paper threads and textiles threads such as silk, cotton or hemp (Shifu).

Korea:

The word "dak" in Korean is a generic term for "paper mulberry". The two species Broussonetia papyrifera and Broussonetia Kazinoki were hybridized early and the two names "Daknamu” (Broussonetia Kazinoki) and “Kkujinamu” (Broussonetia papyrifera) are often confused; the term Daknamu is most often used but may designate one or other of the two species. However, it seems that Broussonetia Kazinoki is most commonly used.

The plant grew throughout Korea and its cultivation increased with the development of the paper industry.

Dak fibers appear to have been used early in the manufacture of paper between the second and fourth centuries AD. The rough surface of the first papers is flattened by hammering or "dochim", a practice that seems to rise in the 8th century.

During the Goryeo period (918-1392) the government encourages the development of the paper industry and Buddhism introduced in the fourth century became in this period, the dominant religion; sacred texts are widely copied and then printed. The development of printing that allows the publication of numerous books, enhance the need to produce more paper.

The Joseon government (1392-1910) before the magnitude of demand will encourage the diversification of raw materials. Gradually fibers of various kinds are mixed with dak fibers and quality that made the reputation of Korean paper at the beginning of the Joseon period, decreased significantly from the 16th century.

The mulberry papers are used for calligraphy, official documents, printing. In the arts, they serve as support for painting, prints, scroll paintings mounting, screens or sliding doors. They are widely used in homes to cover windows, sliding doors, walls and floors and in different crafts where they are used to make domestic purpose objects, boxes, jars, umbrellas, lanterns, fans, textiles, toys etc. Finally, they are also found in religious or ceremonial articles.

Thailand:

In Thailand, the use of Broussonetia started with the Japanese occupation (linked to a growing demand for paper from Japanese) during the Second World War. It replaced the Streblus asper (Khoi), fiber traditionally used in Thailand, which was missing while Broussonetia was abundant in Northern Thailand.

Preparation process for making paper

Japan:

Harvesting begins when the leaves have fallen in November, December. The branches are cut into equal pieces of one meter in length to form bundles. These bundles are placed in an oven for two to three hours to facilitate the peeling of the bark. The bark at this stage is called "black bark" because of its outside layer to be removed before ensiling. It is scraped with a knife.
The bark is then rinsed and allowed to dry on rack. The bark is ready to make paper after two or three years of storage.
Before cooking, the bark can be bleached: it is exposed to sunlight in the cold water of a river or on the snow. Cooking in an alkaline solution allows the removal of lignin, pectins, gums and waxes, which would block the separation of fibers during the beating. Alcaline solutions are either wood ash or alkaline chemicals (sodium hydroxide or lime). Cooking lasts about two hours but the duration varies depending on the age of the bark and the alkali used. After cooking the barks are rinsed to remove alkali residues. Removing of foreign particles is done by hands in cold water.

The pulp is then beaten manually with mallets or sticks, or in the Japanese hollander, the naginata.
The pulp is poured into a wooden tub already filled with water and the dispersing agent is added to the paste which is whipped using a wooden rake.
Two methods are used to make the sheet: nagashizuki or tamezuki. In the tamezuki method the amount of needed pulp is taken at once to form the sheet. In the nagashizuki method the sheet is made by superimposing layers of fibers successively until the desired thickness.
The sheets are laid one by one on a board equipped with marks, with or without spacer (thread, stems) for better separation after pressing. The pressing is done by placing the paper stack under load or in a lever press, at the end of the workday; it lasts usually one night. To make them dry, the sheets are brushed on wooden boards which will be placed outdoors or indoors. Currently heated metal plates are also used.
Finally, the sheets are sorted and usually trimmed with a knife using a template.

Korea:

Harvesting takes place between November and February. One year shrubs are preferably chosen for their soft fibers. The branches are cut to a length of 1.20m; to facilitate the peeling of the bark, the bundles are spread in a metal pot filled with water and are covered with a thick coarse cloth which will retain the steam. The device is heated for 5-7 hours.

After steaming the bark can be directly separated from the wood and then dried in the sun. The bark is called at this stage "black bark" because of its outer layer which should be removed. It is scraped with a knife.

The white bark is left to soak for a whole day to facilitate the removal of soluble elements and penetration into the fibers of the alkaline solution. Then the bark is cut and assembled into bunches for an alkaline cooking. The barks are placed in a tub containing a caustic lye and are boiled for three to four hours. This operation removes lignin and non desirable materials (pectins, starches). Alkaline agents are either plant ashes or alkaline chemicals (soda, lime or sodium carbonate).

After cooking, the barks are rinsed in running water for half a day to remove detergent and dissolved substances.

The barks can be also immersed longer in running water, for several days in order to expose them to sunlight and to bleach them.

The removal of impurities is done by hand in cold water.

The pulp is then beaten by various methods: using sticks on a flat stone or a wooden disk, a vertical beater and more recently in the Japanese hollander, naginata.

To proceed to sheet making, the tank is first filled with water and the pulp is poured into the vat. The dispersing agent is added and the pulp is whipped. The methods used are called webal, ssangbal and jangpanji. In the webal method, the sheet is usually formed of two layers. The sheet is couched on a wooden board; either one sheet is couched alone, or a second sheet is laid on its surface, head to tail to form a single sheet.

The Ssangbal method is derived from Japanese nagashizuki returned after 1900 (the method had been imported in the early 15th century when production should be accelerated).

In Jangpanji, which is used for the manufacture of large format sheets, the mold is maintained by two people at each large end. The sheet is formed by successive layers of pulp.

In all cases, the sheets are couched with the movable screen in a stack and are separated or not by an intermediate element (thread, stems) to facilitate separation after pressing. Before lifting the screen, the pile of sheets is pressed with a wooden roller to eliminate air bubbles.

The pressing is carried out under load or in a lever press. The draining is slow (12 hours).

To be dried, the sheets are brushed on a smooth surface: wood plank on the floor made with oiled papers, on a steam heated metal plate.

Calendering or Dochim is the step that makes paper more compact, less porous and gives it a smooth surface. The sheets are moistened into small packs of ten and are then hammered on a flat stone with a foot hammer (currently a motorized hammer).

Thailand:

Harvesting takes place when the shrub has reached a certain maturity. The bark is peeled directly from the branches. The barks are first placed in clean water for a day to soften them. Then they are boiled in water with lime or in wood ash lye for 5 hours and finally rinsed. The removal of impurities is done by hand.Beating is done manually using wooden mallets on a wooden table or in the Japanese hollander (naginata). The dye is added to the pulp.The paper mold used to make the sheet is non movable, it is a cotton canvas stretched over bamboo bars. Two methods are used to form the sheets: the mold is immersed and agitated to allow the distribution of the paste, ot the mold is set to float on the surface of the tank and the pulp measured in the right quantity and diluted in a container is poured over the mold to be evenly distributed by hand.For drying, the mold is placed at an angle in the sun. After complete drying the sheet will be detached by peeling.

Paper names

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Thailand:

The papers made from paper mulberry fibers are a modern production in Thailand.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

Phyllostachys edulis (Carrière) J. Houz. © Flora of China

Phyllostachys edulis (Carrière) J. Houz. © L.B. Vilmont

Phyllostachys edulis (Carrière) J. Houz. © G. Chen

Identification

Fibre type	Grass (Stem)
Average fibre lenght	1,2 - 2,4 mm
Average fibre width	20µm
Fibre ends	Pointed.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases
Associated cells	Vessel elements, small rectangular thick walled parenchyma cells.
Special features	Long fibers (longer than rice straw) sometimes very wide vessel elements. Prominent fiber wall.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining	Deep blue or greyish reddish blue.

Botanical classification

Phyllostachys edulis (Carrière) J. Houz.

Order:

Poales

Family: