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Phellodendron amurense Rupr. © Plantillustrations

Phellodendron amurense Rupr. © C. Laroque

Botanical classification

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Order:

Sapindales

Family:

Rutaceae

Plant growing area

China (Anhui, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Shandong, Shanxi), Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku), Korea, Russia (Far East, Siberia, Sakhalin Island), Taiwan.

It grows in mountain, in river valleys, in forests and in thickets.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea .

Plant cultivation and use

Phellodendron amurense is a tree which can reach 10 to 15m high, with large branches, which bark of light gray color has the consistency of cork. As it is hardy, it can adapt to various soil types. Flowers are yellow-green and small. Flowering occurs in May-June. The fruits grow in clusters and have a strong odor when crushed. Fruits yield an oil which insecticidal properties are similar to those of pyrethrum.

Phellodendron amurense is widely cultivated especially in China, for its medicinal (infection treatment) and dyeing properties conferred by the alkaloids it contains.

The dye alkaloids are mainly berberine, but also menispérine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, phellodendrine, candicine, magnoflorine.

The dye obtained from the bark has been widely used in Asia. The color varies from pale yellow to brown depending on the concentration. It is very sensitive to light and fades into an orange brown.

China:

Phellodendron amurense is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Bark is the main part of the plant used medicinally but oil from the fruit is also used.

The method giving the appearance of old paper is called juan huang. This tradition of dyeing papers to give them the appearance of aged papers began in the 2nd or 3rd century, especially for books. This is a practice that seems designed to protect the books of insect damage and at the same time to give the paper a glossy surface. Dyeing was carried out before or after writing. Many Dunhuang manuscripts were treated in this way.

A decree in 675 (Tang Dynasty) mandates the use of yellow paper for official documents to protect them from insects. This practice will continue during the Song dynasty (960-1127). For the same reason the yellow papers are often used for writing sutras. An alternative to protect books from damage caused by insects was the use of litharge that gave to paper an orange color.

Paper dyeing is described in several books: « Qimin yaoshu » or «Main techniques for the welfare of the people” by Jia Sixie, (middle of 6^th century); « Zunsheng bajian » or «Eight orders to follow the meaning of life » by Gao Lian (1591); « Wuli xiaoshi » or « Some Knowledge of Physics » by Fang Yishi (1643).

It is specified in the "Qimin Yaoshu" that yellow papers are often embellished by waxing that gives a smooth and hard surface.

Japan:

This is the most important yellow dye for dyeing fabrics since the 7th century. It is also used for prints.

This is the most common yellow dye used to dye paper for copying sutras. This prevalence is due to its dying and insect repellent properties. After dyeing the paper was polished.

These papers were often used for writing poems and love letters but also for official documents.

The dye is often mixed with indigo to obtain green colors.

Usually the pulp is dyed in the tank before making the sheet.

Korea:

Because of their repellent properties, papers dyed with Phellodendron were widely used for bookbinding boards and to receive sutras texts or official writings (such as birth certificates).

They were also commonly used in the manufacture of embossed papers (neunghwaji).

Preparation process for making paper

China:

The outer bark of Phellodendron is removed and the inner part is chopped into pieces and placed in a bag, soaked in water and boiled; then the filtrate, a bitter yellow liquid, is collected by pressing the bark.
The residues are crushed and boiled again, three times and the filtrates of the three baths are mixed. This allows for a bigger quantity of liquid and a less saturated color. This liquid is called Huang po.
The paper to be dyed must be unsized to let dye penetrates better. The paper after dyeing has a glossy appearance.

An alternative is to immerse the paper simultaneously in the Phellodendron decoction and in decoctions of oak cups (Quercus acutissima or Quercus serrata) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) to get more yellow shades.

Japan:

Wood is cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing. It is not necessary to use mordant.

Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The inner part of bark, or wood are cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing.

Papers dyed with Phellodendron amurense are fixed by etching with tannins extracted from the bark of chestnut or oak acorns.

The papers are dyed in three ways: dyeing of the pulp (Seonyeombeop), dyeing of the sheet by dipping, brushing and spraying (Huyeombeop ), combination of the both methods (Honyeombeop). Then the paper can be hammered.

Paper names

In Asia and particularly in China, Korea and Japan, the papers are intended for a wide range of use: Papers for calligraphy and art, Papers for ceremonies, Paper as a medium of exchange, money paper, Papers for making clothes, wall hangings and bedding, Papers for architecture, interior design, Papers for crafts of various kinds, for domestic purposes and leisure. The names assigned to the paper refers to different notions: The material used, The place of production, The method of production, Appearance, Dimensions, Use, The name of an artist or a studio etc.

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Wood

Use for paper making:

Dye

Insecticide

Language:

French

Botanical classification

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Order:

Sapindales

Family:

Rutaceae

Plant growing area

It grows in mountain, in river valleys, in forests and in thickets.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea .

Plant cultivation and use

Phellodendron amurense is widely cultivated especially in China, for its medicinal (infection treatment) and dyeing properties conferred by the alkaloids it contains.

The dye alkaloids are mainly berberine, but also menispérine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, phellodendrine, candicine, magnoflorine.

The dye obtained from the bark has been widely used in Asia. The color varies from pale yellow to brown depending on the concentration. It is very sensitive to light and fades into an orange brown.

China:

Phellodendron amurense is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Bark is the main part of the plant used medicinally but oil from the fruit is also used.

It is specified in the "Qimin Yaoshu" that yellow papers are often embellished by waxing that gives a smooth and hard surface.

Japan:

This is the most important yellow dye for dyeing fabrics since the 7th century. It is also used for prints.

This is the most common yellow dye used to dye paper for copying sutras. This prevalence is due to its dying and insect repellent properties. After dyeing the paper was polished.

These papers were often used for writing poems and love letters but also for official documents.

The dye is often mixed with indigo to obtain green colors.

Usually the pulp is dyed in the tank before making the sheet.

Korea:

Because of their repellent properties, papers dyed with Phellodendron were widely used for bookbinding boards and to receive sutras texts or official writings (such as birth certificates).

They were also commonly used in the manufacture of embossed papers (neunghwaji).

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Japan:

Wood is cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing. It is not necessary to use mordant.

Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The inner part of bark, or wood are cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing.

Papers dyed with Phellodendron amurense are fixed by etching with tannins extracted from the bark of chestnut or oak acorns.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Wood

Use for paper making:

Dye

Insecticide

Language:

English

Botanical classification

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Order:

Sapindales

Family:

Rutaceae

Plant growing area

It grows in mountain, in river valleys, in forests and in thickets.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea .

Plant cultivation and use

Phellodendron amurense is widely cultivated especially in China, for its medicinal (infection treatment) and dyeing properties conferred by the alkaloids it contains.

The dye alkaloids are mainly berberine, but also menispérine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, phellodendrine, candicine, magnoflorine.

The dye obtained from the bark has been widely used in Asia. The color varies from pale yellow to brown depending on the concentration. It is very sensitive to light and fades into an orange brown.

China:

Phellodendron amurense is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Bark is the main part of the plant used medicinally but oil from the fruit is also used.

It is specified in the "Qimin Yaoshu" that yellow papers are often embellished by waxing that gives a smooth and hard surface.

Japan:

This is the most important yellow dye for dyeing fabrics since the 7th century. It is also used for prints.

This is the most common yellow dye used to dye paper for copying sutras. This prevalence is due to its dying and insect repellent properties. After dyeing the paper was polished.

These papers were often used for writing poems and love letters but also for official documents.

The dye is often mixed with indigo to obtain green colors.

Usually the pulp is dyed in the tank before making the sheet.

Korea:

Because of their repellent properties, papers dyed with Phellodendron were widely used for bookbinding boards and to receive sutras texts or official writings (such as birth certificates).

They were also commonly used in the manufacture of embossed papers (neunghwaji).

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Japan:

Wood is cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing. It is not necessary to use mordant.

Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The inner part of bark, or wood are cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing.

Papers dyed with Phellodendron amurense are fixed by etching with tannins extracted from the bark of chestnut or oak acorns.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Wood

Use for paper making:

Dye

Insecticide

Language:

Japanese

Local scripture:

黄柏

Botanical classification

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Order:

Sapindales

Family:

Rutaceae

Plant growing area

It grows in mountain, in river valleys, in forests and in thickets.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea .

Plant cultivation and use

Phellodendron amurense is widely cultivated especially in China, for its medicinal (infection treatment) and dyeing properties conferred by the alkaloids it contains.

The dye alkaloids are mainly berberine, but also menispérine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, phellodendrine, candicine, magnoflorine.

The dye obtained from the bark has been widely used in Asia. The color varies from pale yellow to brown depending on the concentration. It is very sensitive to light and fades into an orange brown.

China:

Phellodendron amurense is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Bark is the main part of the plant used medicinally but oil from the fruit is also used.

It is specified in the "Qimin Yaoshu" that yellow papers are often embellished by waxing that gives a smooth and hard surface.

Japan:

This is the most important yellow dye for dyeing fabrics since the 7th century. It is also used for prints.

This is the most common yellow dye used to dye paper for copying sutras. This prevalence is due to its dying and insect repellent properties. After dyeing the paper was polished.

These papers were often used for writing poems and love letters but also for official documents.

The dye is often mixed with indigo to obtain green colors.

Usually the pulp is dyed in the tank before making the sheet.

Korea:

Because of their repellent properties, papers dyed with Phellodendron were widely used for bookbinding boards and to receive sutras texts or official writings (such as birth certificates).

They were also commonly used in the manufacture of embossed papers (neunghwaji).

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Japan:

Wood is cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing. It is not necessary to use mordant.

Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The inner part of bark, or wood are cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing.

Papers dyed with Phellodendron amurense are fixed by etching with tannins extracted from the bark of chestnut or oak acorns.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Wood

Use for paper making:

Dye

Insecticide

Language:

Japanese

Local scripture:

きはだ

Botanical classification

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Order:

Sapindales

Family:

Rutaceae

Plant growing area

It grows in mountain, in river valleys, in forests and in thickets.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea .

Plant cultivation and use

Phellodendron amurense is widely cultivated especially in China, for its medicinal (infection treatment) and dyeing properties conferred by the alkaloids it contains.

The dye alkaloids are mainly berberine, but also menispérine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, phellodendrine, candicine, magnoflorine.

The dye obtained from the bark has been widely used in Asia. The color varies from pale yellow to brown depending on the concentration. It is very sensitive to light and fades into an orange brown.

China:

Phellodendron amurense is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Bark is the main part of the plant used medicinally but oil from the fruit is also used.

It is specified in the "Qimin Yaoshu" that yellow papers are often embellished by waxing that gives a smooth and hard surface.

Japan:

This is the most important yellow dye for dyeing fabrics since the 7th century. It is also used for prints.

This is the most common yellow dye used to dye paper for copying sutras. This prevalence is due to its dying and insect repellent properties. After dyeing the paper was polished.

These papers were often used for writing poems and love letters but also for official documents.

The dye is often mixed with indigo to obtain green colors.

Usually the pulp is dyed in the tank before making the sheet.

Korea:

Because of their repellent properties, papers dyed with Phellodendron were widely used for bookbinding boards and to receive sutras texts or official writings (such as birth certificates).

They were also commonly used in the manufacture of embossed papers (neunghwaji).

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Japan:

Wood is cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing. It is not necessary to use mordant.

Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The inner part of bark, or wood are cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing.

Papers dyed with Phellodendron amurense are fixed by etching with tannins extracted from the bark of chestnut or oak acorns.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Wood

Use for paper making:

Dye

Insecticide

Language:

Korean

Local scripture:

황벽

Botanical classification

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Order:

Sapindales

Family:

Rutaceae

Plant growing area

It grows in mountain, in river valleys, in forests and in thickets.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea .

Plant cultivation and use

Phellodendron amurense is widely cultivated especially in China, for its medicinal (infection treatment) and dyeing properties conferred by the alkaloids it contains.

The dye alkaloids are mainly berberine, but also menispérine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, phellodendrine, candicine, magnoflorine.

The dye obtained from the bark has been widely used in Asia. The color varies from pale yellow to brown depending on the concentration. It is very sensitive to light and fades into an orange brown.

China:

Phellodendron amurense is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Bark is the main part of the plant used medicinally but oil from the fruit is also used.

It is specified in the "Qimin Yaoshu" that yellow papers are often embellished by waxing that gives a smooth and hard surface.

Japan:

This is the most important yellow dye for dyeing fabrics since the 7th century. It is also used for prints.

This is the most common yellow dye used to dye paper for copying sutras. This prevalence is due to its dying and insect repellent properties. After dyeing the paper was polished.

These papers were often used for writing poems and love letters but also for official documents.

The dye is often mixed with indigo to obtain green colors.

Usually the pulp is dyed in the tank before making the sheet.

Korea:

Because of their repellent properties, papers dyed with Phellodendron were widely used for bookbinding boards and to receive sutras texts or official writings (such as birth certificates).

They were also commonly used in the manufacture of embossed papers (neunghwaji).

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Japan:

Wood is cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing. It is not necessary to use mordant.

Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The inner part of bark, or wood are cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing.

Papers dyed with Phellodendron amurense are fixed by etching with tannins extracted from the bark of chestnut or oak acorns.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Wood

Use for paper making:

Dye

Insecticide

Language:

French

Botanical classification

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Order:

Sapindales

Family:

Rutaceae

Plant growing area

It grows in mountain, in river valleys, in forests and in thickets.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Japan, Korea .

Plant cultivation and use

Phellodendron amurense is widely cultivated especially in China, for its medicinal (infection treatment) and dyeing properties conferred by the alkaloids it contains.

The dye alkaloids are mainly berberine, but also menispérine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, phellodendrine, candicine, magnoflorine.

The dye obtained from the bark has been widely used in Asia. The color varies from pale yellow to brown depending on the concentration. It is very sensitive to light and fades into an orange brown.

China:

Phellodendron amurense is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Bark is the main part of the plant used medicinally but oil from the fruit is also used.

It is specified in the "Qimin Yaoshu" that yellow papers are often embellished by waxing that gives a smooth and hard surface.

Japan:

This is the most important yellow dye for dyeing fabrics since the 7th century. It is also used for prints.

This is the most common yellow dye used to dye paper for copying sutras. This prevalence is due to its dying and insect repellent properties. After dyeing the paper was polished.

These papers were often used for writing poems and love letters but also for official documents.

The dye is often mixed with indigo to obtain green colors.

Usually the pulp is dyed in the tank before making the sheet.

Korea:

Because of their repellent properties, papers dyed with Phellodendron were widely used for bookbinding boards and to receive sutras texts or official writings (such as birth certificates).

They were also commonly used in the manufacture of embossed papers (neunghwaji).

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Japan:

Wood is cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing. It is not necessary to use mordant.

Dyeing of paper is performed in two ways: pulp dyeing (sukizome) or sheet dyeing (hitashizome by dipping or hikizome by brushing).

To dye paper by soaking, the sheets are plucked one by one between two wooden sticks by the small side. This will keep the sheet flat during soaking.

Korea:

The inner part of bark, or wood are cut in small pieces and boiled. The extract is filtered before dyeing.

Papers dyed with Phellodendron amurense are fixed by etching with tannins extracted from the bark of chestnut or oak acorns.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.
In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.
In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Wood

Use for paper making:

Dye

Insecticide

Broussonetia Papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. © Flora of China

Broussonetia Papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. © C. Laroque

Broussonetia Papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Broussonetia Papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. © L.B. Vilmont

Identification

Fibre type	Bast fiber
Average fibre length	10 mm
Average fibre width	28µm (25-35µm)
Fibre ends	Ends of various shapes, pointed or blunt, scalloped, forked, spatulated.
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Faint, Cross-markings.
Associated Cells	Parenchyma cells. Rectangular associated cells which turn blue.
Special features	Irregurlarly shaped fiber ends and walls. Looks like woodpulp (vessels) and straw pulp. Fibers often covered with a translucent membrane which is the most characteristic element of the paper mulberry fiber. Very long fibers. Usually thick but irregular fiber walls with crosses.
Herzberg stain	Red with blue lumen membrane.
C. Graff stain	Red with blue lumen membrane.

Botanical classification

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Moraceae

Synonyms:

Morus papyrifera L.

Smithiodendron artocarpioideum Hu

Papyrius papyrifera (L.) Kuntze

Plant growing area

Native to the Pacific region (Polynesia).

Native or cultivated in Burma, Cambodia, China (Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, South East Xizang/Tibet, Yunnan, Zhejiang), India (Sikkim), Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam.

Grows in China until 2500m.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China, Korea, Japan, Thailand.

China:

Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Henan, Hainan, Hebei, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shanxi,Shaanxi, Shandong, Sichuan, South East Xizang (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang.

Japan:

Chūbu (Niigata,Toyama, Ishikawa,Fukui, Nagano, Gifu, Shizuoka, Aichi Prefectures), Chūgoku (Shimane Prefecture), Kansai (Kyoto, Hyogo, Nara Prefectures), Kantō (Ibaraki, Tochigi, Saitama Prefectures), Kyūshū (Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Oita, Kagoshima Prefectures), Shikoku (Tokushima, Ehime, Kochi Prefectures), Tōhoku (Iwate , Miyagi, Fukushima Prefectures).

Korea:

Gyeonggi (Gapyeong, Mungyeong, Gyeongin, Yeongin), Gangwon (Wonju), Chungcheong (Danyang, Goesan) Gyeongsang (Andong, Chongsong, Uiryeong, Hamyang, Jinju), Jeolla (Imsil, Namwon, Jeonjiu).

Thailand:

Chiangmai

Plant cultivation and use

Brousonnetias are a genus of the Moraceae family, which includes several species which the main are B. papyrifera, B. kazinoki, B. kaempferi, B. kurzii.
Brousonnetia papyrifera is a deciduous shrub which grows in the wild but can be cultivated; it can reach 15m in height. The species is dioecious. The fruits are edible. It grows as well on flat ground, allowing an easy harvest, as on hillside, where land is less desirable for other cultures. It accommodates both dry lands and wetlands.
Its cultivation is quite easy but it's Brousonnetia kazinoki being simpler, the two species are often planted in mixed fields. Cultivated shrubs provide better fibers than the wild ones; they are thick, long and strong. Its growth is slow, however, the harvest can take place each year.
Shrubs provide bark used for ever in East Asia and the Pacific arc. They are mainly used in paper manufacturing, but also in traditional medicine as are the leaves and fruits of the shrub.

China:

Paper mulberry in the past and until now grows or is cultivated throughout China.

The use of Broussonetia barks in the manufacture of paper, originated probably in the ancient production of barkcloth (tapa), especially in the South and Southwest.

Paper mulberry is harvested, grown or sold for the manufacture of cloth very early, under the Shang (-17th / 11th-century).

The earliest mention of the use of bark in the manufacture of paper can be found in the biography of Cai-Lun, within the "Hou Han shu " or "History of the Later Han Dynasty" by Fan Yeh, dating from the 5th century and the use seems to have started with Cai Lun in the second century.

Papers made with paper mulberry are already popular under the Jin (265-420); under the Tang (618-907), these papers are quite common for writing. Papers for calligraphy and painting in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) are often made from a mixture of bark and bamboo or sometimes straw.

At all times they are also used for making money paper, clothes, for bookbinding, in the interiors, etc. At the end of the Tang Dynasty lightweight armors are made with paper, which are able to stop the arrows; they will be used even under the Qing (1644-1911) by the tribes of the south, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi.

Japan:

Papermakers formerly cultivated their own fields of kozo (Broussonetia papyrifera) but now with rare exceptions, kozo or kazinoki (Broussonetia kazinoki) are grown by farmers in addition to food crops and are sold to paper makers. However, some papermakers still gather together to grow and harvest the bark at the place where paper is manufactured. The paper is produced in many regions of Japan.

Kozo was used early in the manufacture of paper. The earliest papers in Japan (family records of families from Mino - Gifu, Chikuzen – Fukuoka et Buzen – Oita) dating from 702, are kozo papers.

The first great era of paper production in Japan covers the Nara period (710-794) and Heian period (794-1185). During these periods, Japan is dominated by a bureaucracy on the Chinese model that requires the use of large quantities of paper. The practice of copying sutras also requires the production of high quality white paper. The government encourages the establishment of paper mills but they remain under the control of local authorities. Local lords control the production because paper is a ware used as tax. The first papers are produced by the tamezuki method up to the Heian period when they are replaced by the nagashizuki method (see papermaking process).

Techniques improve during the Heian period and kozo and gampi (Wikstroemia) will take the place of hemp. Kozo takes the greatest space because it is easier than hemp and can be grown easily everywhere; gampi has a more limited use because as it could not be cultivated, harvesting is restricted to wild shrubs.

The second great period runs from the Kamakura period (1185-1333) until the end of the Meiji period (1868-1912). The demand for paper increases enormously during the feudal period. Production increases in quantity, quality and variety. During the Edo period (1603-1868), kozo is grown and used in paper manufactures in many parts of Japan. The paper changes its status, from taxes, it takes the status of goods exported to the large cities. This lucrative trade is under the control of the clans of samurais.

The pure kozo paper (choshi) is used for calligraphy, official documents, printing.

Papers for calligraphy are sized to prevent the ink to spread and appear dull and flat. At present papers for calligraphy may contain other fibers such as bamboo or rice straw to expand the range of aesthetic effects to be obtained.

In the arts, kozo papers are used as support for painting, prints, scroll paintings mounting, screens or sliding doors.

They are widely used in homes to cover windows, sliding doors, walls and floors and in different crafts where they are used to make domestic purpose objects, boxes, jars, umbrellas, lanterns, fans, textiles, toys etc

Finally, they are also found in religious or ceremonial articles.

They are also used for making fabrics: the paper sheet is used directly after being treated to increase its strength (Kamiko) or after making threads. The fabric is obtained by weaving mixed threads, paper threads and textiles threads such as silk, cotton or hemp (Shifu).

Korea:

The word "dak" in Korean is a generic term for "paper mulberry". The two species Broussonetia papyrifera and Broussonetia Kazinoki were hybridized early and the two names "Daknamu” (Broussonetia Kazinoki) and “Kkujinamu” (Broussonetia papyrifera) are often confused; the term Daknamu is most often used but may designate one or other of the two species. However, it seems that Broussonetia Kazinoki is most commonly used.

The plant grew throughout Korea and its cultivation increased with the development of the paper industry.

Dak fibers appear to have been used early in the manufacture of paper between the second and fourth centuries AD. The rough surface of the first papers is flattened by hammering or "dochim", a practice that seems to rise in the 8th century.

During the Goryeo period (918-1392) the government encourages the development of the paper industry and Buddhism introduced in the fourth century, became in this period the dominant religion, sacred texts are widely copied and then printed. The development of printing that allows the publication of numerous books, enhance the need to produce more paper.

The Joseon government (1392 - 1910) in front of the magnitude of demand will encourage the diversification of raw materials. Gradually fibers of various kinds are mixed with dak fibers and quality which made the reputation of Korean paper at the beginning of the Joseon period, decreased significantly from the 16th century.

The mulberry papers are used for calligraphy, official documents, printing. In the arts, they serve as support for painting, prints, scroll paintings mounting, screens or sliding doors.

Thailand:

In Thailand, the use of Broussonetia started with the Japanese occupation (linked to a growing demand for paper from Japanese) during the Second World War. It replaced the Streblus asper (Khoi), fiber traditionally used in Thailand, which was missing while Broussonetia was abundant in northern Thailand.

Preparation process for making paper

China:

Harvesting takes place in the spring. The bark is peeled directly from the branches or after steaming. In this case, the branches are put in bundles and the peeling of the bark is done after steaming or cooking in boiling water inside a closed tank. The bark can then either be dried in the sun or let to ferment. In the first case, the impurities are removed by an alkaline cooking (ash lye) that can last several days. If the fermentation process is used, the barks are immersed in water to ferment for several days. They are then rinsed and brown bark is scraped with a knife. They are then immersed in a lime bath for several weeks. The operation is followed by further rinsing.

Bleaching is carried out by exposing the bark to the sun with water spraying for 7 to 11 weeks.
The bark is then crushed by various methods: in a mortar with a pestle or with a trip hammer (foot hammer or with cams activated by water power) on a stone or beaten with mallets or wooden sticks or crushed in a grinder moved by an animal.

Before making the sheets, a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is brewed.
Sheet forming uses several methods: bailing in one or several scoops depending on the desired thickness.

The sheets are couched in a pile before being put under weight or in press during one night. They are then brushed on a heated or not heated wall to dry.

Japan:

Harvesting begins when the leaves have fallen in November, December. The branches are cut into equal pieces of one meter in length to form bundles. These bundles are placed in an oven for two to three hours to facilitate the peeling of the bark. The bark at this stage is called "black bark" because of its outside layer to be removed before ensiling. It is scraped with a knife.

The bark is then rinsed and let to dry on racks. The bark is ready to make paper after two or three years of storage.

Before cooking the bark can be bleached: it is exposed to sunlight in the cold water of a river or on the snow. Cooking in an alkaline solution allows the removal of lignin, pectins, gums and waxes, which would block the separation of fibers during the beating. Alcaline solutions are either made from wood ash or alkaline chemicals (sodium hydroxide or lime). Cooking lasts about two hours but the duration varies depending on the age of the bark and the alkali used. After cooking the barks are rinsed to remove alkali residues. Removing of foreign particles is done by hands in cold water.

The pulp is then beaten manually with mallets or sticks, or in the Japanese hollander, the naginata.The pulp is poured into a wooden vat already filled with water and a dispersing agent is added to the pulp which is whipped using a wooden rake.Two methods are used to make the sheet: nagashizuki or tamezuki. In the tamezuki method the amount of needed pulp is taken at once to form the sheet. In the nagashizuki method the sheet is made by superimposing layers of fibers successively until the desired thickness.The sheets are laid one by one on a board equipped with marks, with or without spacer (thread, gras stem) for better separation after pressing. The pressing is done by placing the paper stack under load or in a lever press. The pressing is done at the end of the workday, it lasts usually one night. To make them dry, the sheets are brushed on wooden boards which will be placed outdoors or indoors. Currently heated metal plates are also used.Finally, the sheets are sorted and usually trimmed with a knife using a template.

Korea:

Harvesting takes place between November and February. One year shrubs are preferably chosen for their soft fibers. The branches are cut to a length of 1.20m; to facilitate the peeling of the bark, the bundles are spread in a metal pot filled with water and are covered with a thick coarse cloth which will retain the steam. The device is heated for 5-7 hours.

After steaming the bark can be directly separated from the wood and then dried in the sun. The bark is called at this stage "black bark" because of its outer layer which should be removed. It is scraped with a knife.

The white bark is left to soak for one day to facilitate the removal of soluble elements and penetration into the fibers of the alkaline solution. Then the bark is cut and assembled into bunches for an alkaline cooking. The barks are placed in a vat containing a caustic lye and boiled for three to four hours. This operation removes lignin and non desirable materials (pectins, starches). Alkaline agents are either plant ashes or alkaline chemicals (soda, lime or sodium carbonate). After cooking, the barks are rinsed in running water for half a day to remove detergent and dissolved substances. The barks are immersed longer in running water, for several days in order to expose them to sunlight and to bleach them.

The removal of hard impurities is done by hand in cold water.
The pulp is then beaten by various methods: using sticks on a flat stone or a wooden disk, a vertical beater and more recently in the Japanese hollander called naginata.
To proceed to sheet making, the tank is first filled with water and the pulp is poured into the vat. The dispersing agent is added and the pulp is whipped. The methods used are called webal, ssangbal and jangpanji. In the webal method, the sheet is usually formed of two layers. The sheet is couched on a wooden board; either one sheet is couched alone, or a second sheet is laid on its surface, head to tail to form a single sheet. The Ssangbal method is derived from Japanese nagashizuki returned after 1900 (the method had been imported in the early 15th century when production should be accelerated). In Jangpanji, which is used for the manufacture of large format sheets, the mould is maintained by two people at each large end. The sheet is formed by successive layers of pulp.
In all cases, the sheets are couched with the movable screen in a stack and are separated or not by an intermediate element (thread, grass stem) to facilitate separation after pressing. Before lifting the screen, the pile of sheets is pressed with a wooden roller to eliminate air bubbles. The pressing is carried out under load or in a lever press. The draining is slow (12 hours). To be dried, the sheets are brushed on a smooth surface: wooden desks, on the floor made with oiled papers, on a heated metal plate.

Calendering or Dochim is the step that makes paper more compact, less porous and gives it a smooth surface. The sheets are moistened into small packs of ten and are then hammered on a flat stone with a foot hammer (currently a motorized hammer).

Thailand:

Harvesting takes place when the shrub has reached a certain maturity. The bark is peeled directly from the branches. The barks are first placed in clean water for a day to soften them. Then they are boiled in water with lime or in wood ash lye for 5 hours and finally rinsed. The removal of hard impurities is done by hand.
Beating is done manually using wooden mallets on a wooden table or the Japanese hollander (naginata).
The paper mould used to make the sheet is non movable, it is a cotton canvas stretched over wooden bars. Two methods are used to form the sheets: the mould is immersed and agitated to allow the distribution of the paste, the mould is set to float on the surface of the tank and the pulp measured in the right quantity and diluted in a container is poured over the mould to be evenly distributed by hand.
For drying, the mould is placed at an angle in the sun. After complete drying the sheet will be detached by peeling.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.

In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Japan:

Suffixes kami, gami, shi = paper.

In Japan kozo papers are the most numerous.

Korea:

Suffix ji = paper.

In Korea papers made with paper mulberry bark are the most numerous.

Thailand:

Papers made with paper mulberry fibers are a modern production in Thailand.

Used part of the plant:

Bark

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type
Average fibre lenght	12-40μm
Average fibre width
Fibre ends
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Fine diagonal striations.
Associated cells	Parenchymal cells of various shapes.
Special features	The fiber has a uniform thickness. The fibers are short compared to bast fibers.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining

Botanical classification

Calamus rotang L.

Order:

Arecales

Family:

Arecaceae

Synonyms:

Rotang linnaei (L.) Baill.

Rotanga calamus (L.) Crantz

Plant growing area

Native to tropical Asia (Southeast Asia) where it grows everywhere.

China (Sichuan, Zhejiang, Jiangxi).

Grows in rain forests.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China.

Plant cultivation and use

Calamus rattan is a rhizomatous, climbing palm, up to 20m high. Stipe or false trunk is long and thin, pinnate leaves are 60 to 80 cm long and are regularly arranged along the stem. The foliage is evergreen.

The white flowers are grouped in inflorescences. Fruits are rounded, and covered with reddish-brown scales; they exude a red resin called "dragon's blood" in traditional medicine, which has astringent properties. The fruits are edible. The sap of the plant is used for preparing a beverage.

Rotang palm prefers drained soils, adapts to exposure from shade to sun, but is very sensitive to low temperatures.

The stem provides rattan, flexible material widely used throughout Southeast Asia for the manufacture of furniture and basketry. The trunk fibers are also used for the manufacture of mats, ropes.

China:

Rattan has been used to make paper in several parts of China, especially in the southeast (Zhejiang, Jiangxi) for almost 1000 years. Also it has been used in Sichuan, but to a lesser extent compared to the production of Southeast.

Many Dunhuang yellow manuscripts were identified as rattan paper. Papermaking with rattan fibers starts in the 3rd century in Shanji (former Zhengxian - Zhejiang) where the rattan was planted through hundreds of miles in the mountains, along the river Shanji. This paper is called Shandeng.

This is the most popular paper during the Tang dynasty (618-907); its production is no longer confined to Shanji, but is also found in the neighboring districts of the Zhejiang and Jiangxij provinces.

Various official documents relate in the early 8th century that the paper is sent as a tribute.

The Administrative Code specifies that the white rattan paper should be used for requisition and punishment decrees, blue paper for offering messages in the Taoist temple in Daijingong, yellow paper for imperial orders.

The paper is described as smooth and durable, of various colors. It is used for calligraphy, and making books. It has also been used for making tea bags since its firm and relatively tight texture can well preserve the flavors.

Rattan running out in Shanji, operations moved from West to East Zhejiang during the Song Dynasty (960-1279). But gradually the resource is exhausted because the rattan is not cultivated. Its death is also linked to the increased use of bamboo as a raw material in the manufacture of paper, which replaces it as well as hemp. Indeed bamboo became the first paper material in the middle of the Tang dynasty.

Paper names

China:

Suffixes zhi or chih = paper.
In China, unlike Korea and Japan, papers made with paper mulberry fibers are not prominent, the production of paper from bamboo fiber being the most important.

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Language:

English

Identification

Fibre type
Average fibre lenght	12-40μm
Average fibre width
Fibre ends
Striations, cross-markings, flexion creases	Fine diagonal striations.
Associated cells	Parenchymal cells of various shapes.
Special features	The fiber has a uniform thickness. The fibers are short compared to bast fibers.
Herzberg staining
Graff 'C' staining

Botanical classification

Calamus rotang L.

Order:

Arecales

Family:

Arecaceae

Synonyms:

Rotang linnaei (L.) Baill.

Rotanga calamus (L.) Crantz

Plant growing area

Native to tropical Asia (Southeast Asia) where it grows everywhere.

China (Sichuan, Zhejiang, Jiangxi).

Grows in rain forests.

Use area in the manufacture of paper

China.

Plant cultivation and use

Rotang palm prefers drained soils, adapts to exposure from shade to sun, but is very sensitive to low temperatures.

The stem provides rattan, flexible material widely used throughout Southeast Asia for the manufacture of furniture and basketry. The trunk fibers are also used for the manufacture of mats, ropes.

China:

Various official documents relate in the early 8th century that the paper is sent as a tribute.

Paper names

China:

Used part of the plant:

Leaf

Use for paper making:

Fiber

Primary tabs

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Calamus rotang L.

Calamus rotang L.

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Primary tabs

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Phellodendron amurense Rupr.

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent.

Calamus rotang L.

Calamus rotang L.

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